Best Management Practices for Agricultural Non-Point Sources of Pollution	Report Contents Report in Word Format
	Caribbean Environment Programme Technical Report #41 1998	All CEP Technical Reports

2.1 Geographic Area

For the purpose of this document, the geographic area of the WCR is based on the definition used in the Cartagena Convention: "the [coastal and] marine environment of the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea and areas of the Atlantic Ocean adjacent thereto, south of 30° north latitude and within 200 nautical miles" of the Atlantic coasts from the Bahamas and Florida down to the northern border of Brazil (Hoagland et al., 1995). (See Figure 2-1.) It should be observed, however, that, although the Convention area encompasses the area closest to the seas, the drainage area from which pollutants are transported to the seas consists of huge land areas on the North American and South American continents.

The WCR encompasses an area of 6.4 million square kilometers, including the U.S. Gulf coast states. The numerous islands of the Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles account for 4.6 percent of the total area; Mexico and the Central American countries compose 48.3 percent of the area (Gajraj, 1981).

2.2 Land Use and Water Resources

Much of the WCR is mountainous and a significant, but rapidly diminishing, proportion of the land is forested. A prospective analysis by Gallopín (1990) projects severe changes in the land ecosystems of Latin America and the Caribbean to accommodate the growing population over the next three decades (LACCDE, 1990). (See Table 2-1.)

Figure 2-1. The Wider Caribbean Region as defined in the Cartagena Convention (UNEP, 1996).
(Click on image to see full figure)

Table 2-1. Projected land use changes in the WCR

	Initial (1980)	2030	% Change
Primary (forested)	40.6	30.0	-26.7
Altered	22.1	21.0	-6.4
Uncultivated	2.0	3.2	69.6
Farming	7.5	11.0	46.5
Livestock	26.8	32.0	20.4
Plantations	0.3	1.5	443.2
Urban	0.7	1.3	92.7
TOTAL	100.0	100.0

Source: LACCDE, 1990.

The freshwater drainage basins within the WCR cover approximately 5.6 million square kilometers. The largest portions are in the United States (62 percent), Venezuela (17 percent), Colombia (4 percent), and Mexico (4 percent) (Diamante et al., 1991). The lands draining into the marine area are clearly of importance to the management of this area, particularly when considering nonpoint source pollution. Table 2-2 denotes the major drainage systems in the region, but it does not include such inputs as the freshwater lagoons, mangrove swamps, and bayous that constitute the coastlines of Florida, Colombia, Venezuela, and the Yucutan peninsula. Additionally, although the freshwater inputs originating from the Amazon River are outside the WCR, they should be accounted for as well.

Table 2-2. Principal rivers draining into the WCR

River	Drainage Area (km2)	Water Discharge (m3/sec)	Sediment Discharge (106 t/year)	Specific Transport (t/km2/year)	Mean Suspended Solids (mg/L)
USA
Mississippi	3,268,000	18,400	222.00	76.00	380
Apalachicola	44,000	620	0.16	6.80	15
Mobile	97,000	1,500	4.50	42.00	95
Brazoa	114,000	160	15.90	0.14	3,200
Colorado	107,000	79	1.90a	17.90
USA-Mexico
Rio Grande	467,000	23	very lowa	—	—
Colombia
Magdelena	235,000	7,500	234.00	1000.00	1,000
Venezuela
Orinoco	950,000	30,000	85.00	91.00	90

a Low values due to dams.

Sources: Hoagland et al., 1995; UNEP, 1994b.

2.3 Socioeconomic Conditions—Agriculture, Industry, and Resources

The Caribbean region has an extraordinary diversity of natural and cultural resources, which are subject to unprecedented development pressures (UNEP, 1994a). Major marine-based industries, such as fisheries, sea transportation (upon which agriculture is dependent), oil and gas extraction, and tourism, have all played an important role in the development of the WCR (UNEP, 1996). Approximately 20 million tourists visit the islands and coastal regions each year to enjoy the coastal and marine environment. Tourists are attracted to the region by the beautiful white beaches, pristine blue waters, bountiful seafood, diving and snorkeling, sportfishing, and mild climates (DeGeorges, 1990).

Agriculture, however, has long been the mainstay of the economies in the WCR countries. The region produces approximately 60 percent of the world’s coffee, 40 percent of the world’s bananas, 25 percent of the world’s beans, 20 percent of the world’s cocoa, and significant quantities of sugar, corn, vanilla, cotton, potatoes, rice, and wheat (CCA and IRF, 1991). Along the northern coast of South America, crops such as cotton, corn, sugarcane, and vanilla dominate. Central America and Mexico focus on cocoa, bananas, sugarcane, mahogany, and livestock. In the eastern Caribbean, agriculture has historically been the most productive sector of the economy, dominated by sugarcane and, more recently, bananas (CCA and IRF, 1991). Dependence on monoculture economies dominates. For instance, Barbados, St. Kitts, and the Dominican Republic have traditionally depended on sugarcane, while Grenada, St. Vincents, St. Lucia, and Dominica depend on banana production (DeGeorges, 1990). Table 2-3 provides the annual banana revenue for the Windward Islands from 1994 to 1997.

Livestock activity traditionally has not been as developed as other areas of agriculture, especially within the island countries and territories. Although livestock was targeted for generous subsidies and government programs among the islands, only the poultry and pork industries have been developed extensively. The island countries’ beef and dairy industries, in particular, are lacking. Most beef has been imported from New Zealand and Australia. Dairy production also has been inadequate. In mainland regions of the WCR, livestock production can be found in greater quantities.

Table 2-3. Windward Islands banana revenue

Revenue (EC$M)
1994	1995	1996	1997	Total
Dominica	55.37	45.15	44.53	41.31	186.36
Grenada	6.52	5.20	1.63	0.00	13.35
St. Lucia	115.71	128.10	125.79	76.37	445.97
St. Vincent and the Grenadines	39.83	61.27	52.43	37.10	190.63
TOTAL	217.43	239.72	224.38	154.78	836.31

Source: Naula Williams, Documentalist, Documentation Centre, Organization of East Caribbean States, March 1998.

The WCR produces approximately 60 percent of the world's coffee.
(Click on image to see full photograph (2MB)).

Mining plays a key role as well. Bauxite, copper, nickel, gold, silver, lead, zinc, manganese, iron ore, oil, and natural gas are present in commercially exploitable quantities. Again, however, the majority of the smaller countries of the WCR have no significant mineral resources and their economies are based primarily on agriculture and tourism (Gajraj, 1981).

Three distinct farming systems typify agricultural production in much of the WCR:

1. The export-oriented plantation system, characterized chiefly by monocultures on large estates and generally occupying the most fertile land (Gumbs, 1981). These systems range in size. For example, in Costa Rica, the smallest plantation growing bananas for export has 40 hectares but the majority of the farms range between 100 and 300 hectares (Hernández, 1997).

2. The subsistence-based agricultural system, which is typically smaller than the plantation system and developed on the more marginal agricultural lands (CCA and IRF, 1991). Most farmers have small plots of only a few hectares or less (DeGeorges, 1990).

3. Migratory, shifting agriculture practiced mainly by indigenous groups in Central America, Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guyanas (Gumbs, 1981).

Farming systems are determined by both the natural landscape and the prevailing socioeconomic conditions of the area (Sentis, 1992). Continued economic growth and development in the WCR have required changes in the traditional use of the land, such as increased agricultural development at the expense of forestland (UNEP, 1994a). (See Tables 2-1 and 2-4.) Food-growing potential in the WCR is further constrained by lack of natural soil fertility, high soil erosion potential due to steep slopes and poor soil drainage, salinization, and shallow soils. In addition, variable climatic conditions such as drought and flooding and natural disasters like hurricanes can impose serious limitations on the productivity of the land (Gajraj, 1981).

The focus of this document is the problems resulting from crop and livestock production. Table 2-5 provides a brief summary of the leading agricultural crop producers of the WCR. They are ranked in terms of the percentage of land area devoted to agriculture. Table 2-6 provides information regarding two key crops in the WCR, ranking sugarcane and banana production according to metric tons produced in 1994 (Hoagland et al., 1995).

Table 2-4. Land use percentage changes in croplands, pasturelands, and forest woodlands in 17 countries of the WCR during the 1977-1989 period

Percentage change (1977-1989)
Cropland	Pastureland	Forestland
Barbados	0.0	0.0	0.0
Belize	12.8	15.2	(1.1)
Costa Rica	5.5	24.0	(17.9)
Colombia	3.5	6.8	(5.6)
Cuba	5.3	14.3	(11.8)
Dominican Republic	5.5	0.0	(3.1)
Guatemala	8.3	7.8	(17.0)
Haiti	2.7	(3.0)	(30.0)
Honduras	2.3	7.2	(18.8)
Jamaica	1.5	(7.9)	(5.1)
Mexico	1.9	0.0	(12.0)
Nicaragua	2.8	11.5	(23.5)
Panama	4.6	15.9	(19.4)
Trinidad and Tobago	3.7	0.0	(4.3)
Suriname	53.7	11.1	(0.3)
Venezuela	5.9	2.9	(8.6)
Average	4.8	6.7	(9.3)

( ) indicates a decline in land use.

Source: UNEP, 1994b.

Table 2-5. Leading agricultural crop producers in the WCR (% of total land area in agricultural land use)

Producer	%	Producer	%	Producer	%
Martinique	87	Barbados	46	Colombia	27
Guadeloupe	84	St. Kitts	45	Trinidad & Tobago	26
Cuba	78	United States	41	Guyana	26
Mexico	73	Panama	39	Dominica	26
Costa Rica	60	Puerto Rico	39	Honduras	24
Haiti	57	Guatemala	38	U.S. Virgin Islands	21
Jamaica	55	St. Lucia	38	Belize	10
Dominican Republic	50	St. Vincent	35	Antigua & Barbados Antigua & BarbudaAntiAn	9
Nicaragua	48	Venezuela	34	Bahamas	3

Source: Hoagland et al., 1995.

Table 2-6. Leading sugarcane and banana producers in the WCR

Leading Sugarcane Producers (thousands of metric tons in 1994)		Leading Banana Producers (thousands of metric tons in 1994)
Cuba	44,000	Colombia	1,950
Mexico	41,652	Mexico	1,650
United States	29,335	Costa Ricaa	1,633
Colombia	29,000	Venezuela	1,215
Guatemalaa	9,788	Panamaa	1,110
Venezuela	6,700	Hondurasa	1,086
Honduras	3,004	Guatemala	465
Costa Rica	2,840	Cuba	295
Jamaica	2,661	Martinique	255
Nicaragua	2,400	Haiti	230
Haiti	2,250	Guadeloupea	148
Panama	1,400	Nicaragua	136
Trinidad & Tobago	1,210	St. Luciab	90
Belize	1,159	Jamaica	77
Barbadosa	533	Suriname	50
Guadeloupea	516	Belize	41
St. Kitts & Nevisa	200	Dominicaa,b	42
Martinique	98	St. Vincent and the Grenadinesb	31
Suriname	45	Guyana	21
		Grenadab	4

a Exporting to United States, United Kingdom, Germany, Netherlands.

b Data for the Windward Islands were obtained through personal communication with the Organization of East Caribbean States.

Source: Adapted from Hoagland et al., 1995.

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Tables, Figures, Acronyms | SECTION 1. | SECTION 2. | SECTION 3. | SECTION 4. | SECTION 5. | SECTION 6. | SECTION 7. | GLOSSARY | REFERENCES CITED | APPENDIX A | APPENDIX B | APPENDIX C | APPENDIX D