Status of Protected Area Systems in the Wider Caribbean Region	Report Contents
	CEP Technical Report No. 36 1996	All CEP Technical Reports

2. RELEVANT ISSUES FOR PROTECTED AREA SYSTEMS IN THE WIDER CARIBBEAN

This report on the Protected Areas Systems covers the 37 states or territories in the Caribbean, Central America, South America, and North America which share the coastal waters of the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea and the adjacent areas of the South Atlantic of the Wider Caribbean Region as defined in the Cartagena Convention and associated protocols (Figure 1: Map of the Wider Caribbean Region).

In spite of the varied physical, cultural, economic and political differences that characterise the region, governments from all these states combined forces under the Caribbean Environment Programme of UNEP and its Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife Programme (SPAW) to promote the sustainable use and conservation of the marine, coastal and associated terrestrial environments of the region.

Sections 2.1 and 2.2 outline the diverse socio-economic and ecological characteristics of the region which underline the importance of protected areas systems to the sustainable development of the region. Section 2.3 identifies the major conventions and programmes being used regionally to promote conservation and sustainable development.

 

2.1. Socio-economic Indicators

The Wider Caribbean Region (WCR) states and territories are home to over 200 million people. Nearly half of the total population lives in the Caribbean and Gulf Coast states of Mexico and the USA. In descending order come South American Caribbean (55 million), Insular Caribbean (34 million) and Central American Caribbean (26 million). Other states with large populations include Colombia (34 million), Venezuela (20 million), Cuba (11 million). By the year 2000, the population living in coastal areas of the WCR is projected to exceed 60 million (UNEP 1994).

Average population density is highest for Insular Caribbean (215 per km2), with densities reaching 300-600 persons per km2 in Barbados, Puerto Rico and Martinique. North America has the second highest density (52 per km2), followed by Central America, and South America. Population growth rates are highest for Central America (2.7%), followed by Mexico (2%), South America (1.9%), and the Insular Caribbean (0.8%).The region's urban population represents 75 to 65% of the total in North and South America, as compared to 50% for Central America and Insular Caribbean (Table 1).

North America's per capita income (US$12,635) is almost 10 times that found in Central America and 6 times greater than South America. Not surprisingly, the US has the highest per capita income level, but 5 insular Caribbean states follow with per capita incomes of US$10-15,000 per year. If US data is excluded, the lower 25% have per capita incomes of US$370-1,730 per year, while the top 25% have incomes of US$4,820-13,770 per year.

Mexico and the US account for 85% of the region's GDP of over US$1.4 billion. South America contributes US$96 million, followed by the Insular Caribbean (US$84 million) and Central America (US$30 million). Individually important economies include Venezuela (US$53 million), Colombia (US$41 million) Puerto Rico ($US32 million) and Cuba (US$21 million).

TABLE 1. SOCIO-ECONOMIC INDICATORS

	Population (1)						GNP (2)
	Pop. 1994 (1000s)	Annual % Increase 85-90, 90-95			Urban %	Density per km2	Infant Mortality per 1000 Births		Million $US	Per Capita Income
Insular Caribbean
Anguilla (UK)	9		1.4	1.3	n.d.	99	19.5	28		3,890
Antigua & Barbuda	65		0.7	0.7	32	147	21.2	363		4,430
Aruba (N)	67		0.1	0.25	n.d.	347	9.6	730		11,840
Bahamas	272		1.8	1.6	64	20	26.3	2,913		11,750
Barbados	261		0.35	0.33	45	607	10.9	1,680		6,630
British Virgin Islands (UK)	18		3.2	2.9	12	118	29.8	133		10,760
Cayman Islands (UK)	32		4.7	4.2		124	6.1	357		13,770
Cuba	11,102		1	0.9	72.0	97	11.1	20,900		2,000
Dominica	71		-0.4	-0.2		95	18.4	160		2,440
Dominican Republic	7,759		2.2	2.0	61.0	160	54.0	7,172		940
Grenada	96		0.2	0.3	33.0	278	29.0	199		2,180
Guadeloupe (FR)	411		1.9	1.2	48	231	9.2	1,170		3,200
Haiti	7,045		2	2.0	29.0	254	94.0	2,641		370
Jamaica	2,408		0.9	1.0	53.0	211	15.0	3,497		1,380
Martinique (FR)	375		1.1	0.9	80	348	8.1	1,429		4,100
Montserrat (UK)	12		-0.5	-0.3	15	115	28.2	54		4,540
Netherlands Antilles (N)	192		-0.02	0.12	92	240	6.3	1,375		7,060
Puerto Rico (USA)	3,648		0.9	0.9	75.0	407	14.0	32,469		6,320
St. Kitts & Nevis	43		-0.5	-0.3	49	165	22.2	133		3,960
St. Lucia	142		1.4	1.4	46	231	17.7	286		2,490
St. Vincent & The Grenadines	111		0.9	0.9	25	285	21.3	184		1,730
Trinidad & Tobago	1,292		1.3	1.1	70	252	19.0	4,920		3,670
Turks & Caicos Islands (UK)	15		4.3	3.8	n.d.	35	10.2	69		4,820
US Virgin Islands (USA)	102		0	0.2	39	296	19.4	1,246		11,740
Subtotal	35,548		1.2	1.1	49	215	21.7	84,108		5,250
Central American Caribbean
Belize	208		2.6	2.0	38	9	36	373		2,010
Costa Rica	3,319		2.8	2.4	48	65	14	5,560		1,850
Guatemala	10,322		2.7	2.7	40	95	60	9,353		930
Honduras	5,367		3.1	3.0	45	48	49	2,661		580
Nicaragua	4,275		2.6	3.7	60	29	56	6,950		460
Panama	2,562		2.1	1.9	54	33	21	5,544		2,130
Subtotal	26,053		2.7	2.6	48	46	39	30,441		1,327
North American Caribbean
Mexico	48,820		2.2	2.0	73.0	70	36.0	282,526		3,030
USA	42,090		0.9	1.0	75.0	34	9.0	936,082		22,240
Subtotal	90,910		1.6		74.0	52	23	1,218,608		12,635
South American Caribbean
Colombia	34,415		1.8	1.7	71	30	23.0	41,207		1,260
Venezuela	19,868		2.4	2.1	85	22	34.0	53,480		2,730
Guyana	755		0.2	1.0	34	4	51.0	293		430
Suriname	428		1.9	1.9	62	3	28.0	1,365		3,630
French Guiana (FR)	130		3.7	3.0	73	1	22.7	179		1,830
Subtotal	55,596		2.0	1.9	65	12	31.7	96,524		1,976
Sources: 1) Trobler, W. et al 1995. The Global Demography Project, NCGIA Technical Report 95-6. National Centre for Geographic Information and Analysis, UC Santa Barbara. 2) Almanaque Mundial 1995. Editorial America S.A.,

2.2. Biodiversity

Biodiversity is defined as the total diversity present at the genetic, species and bio-physical levels. As measured by species numbers, the tropics harbour at least 50% of the world's biodiversity. The diverse environments of the Wider Caribbean in turn contain a significant part of the tropic's biodiversity. Biodiversity conservation is a primary or secondary objective in all protected areas.

While year round environmental stability associated with a range of widely differing ecosystems is often identified as an important factor for species diversification of tropical environments, Prance (1985) describes major climate change (decreases in rainfall, average temperature and sea level) over the past 2-3 million years as the primary factor behind the development of centres of speciation in the Amazon. In Central America, climatic change, together with the consolidation of the inter-American land bridge and ocean barrier, and the associated range of environmental conditions have been cited as major factors which increase biodiversity (Rich & Rich 1983).

Overall biodiversity is undoubtedly due in part to the great the variety of landforms and environmental conditions, periodic climatic swings and island biogeography. Mountainous areas border much of the region from the US-Mexico border through Venezuela, and are also found in Hispaniola, Jamaica, Puerto Rico and the Lesser Antilles. Submarine trenches (Cayman, Puerto Rico) and ridges divide the region into a number of basins and banks.

Coastal lowlands, often associated with wide continental shelves, are characteristic of the USA (Gulf States), the Yucatan Peninsula, the Honduras-Nicaragua border, Los Llanos in Venezuela, the Guyana Shield, and most of Cuba. Over 50 internationally significant wetlands have been identified in the region. Many have been given some type of protection, although few have been submitted under the Ramsar Convention (Table 2).

The most obvious common denominator for the region is the shared status as coastal countries of the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea and Western Atlantic. If the coastlines of the region were lined up one by one, the combined length would reach almost three-quarters of the way around the globe. Although the land area of the insular Insular Caribbean states is only 5% of the region's total, they possess over 50% of the coasts.

TABLE 2. MAJOR WETLANDS

INSULAR CARIBBEAN Bahamas: 1) Western Andros Wetlands, 3) Lake Rosa, Inagua National Park Barbados: 17) Graeme Hall Swamp Barbuda: 15) Saline Lagoons of Barbuda Cuba: 4) The Sabana & Camaguey Archipelagos, 5) Zapata Swamp, 6) Cienega de Lanier & Esenada de la Siguanea Dominican Republic: 13) Lago Enriquillo Grand Cayman: 7) Central Mangrove Swamp & Booby Cay Guadeloupe: 16) Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin Haiti: 11) Artibonite Floodplain & Delta, 12) Etang Saumatre Jamaica: 8) Negril Morass, 9) Black River Lower Morass, 10) Portland Bight Swamp N. Antilles: 101) Netherlands Antilles Wetlands Puerto Rico: 14) Humaco Swamp Trinidad & Tobago: 104) Caroni Swamp Turks & Caicos: 2) North & Middle Caicos CENTRAL AMERICAN CARIBBEAN Belize: 35) Crooked Tree Lagoon, 36) Northern Lagoon & Southern (Manatee) Lagoon Costa Rica: 24) Barra de Colorado Guatemala: 34) El Tigre Lake, 33) Lago de Itzabal, Golfete, Rio Dulce Honduras: 30) Laguna de Caratasca, 31) Lago de Yojoa Nicaragua: 29) Rio Grande de Matagalpa Delta Panama: 23) Laguna de Chiriqui, 20) Gatun Lake SOUTH AMERICAN CARIBBEAN Colombia: 96) Lower Rio Atrato Wetlands, 97) Cienaga de Zapatosa, 98) Cienaga Grande de Santa Marta Guyanas: 105) Coastal Mudflats & Mangroves, 106) Coppermane Rivermouth Venezuela: 99) Cienagas de Juan Manuel, Aguas Blancas y Aguas Negras 100) Cuare Wildlife Refuge, 102) Los Llanos, 103) Orinoco Delta NORTH AMERICAN CARIBBEAN Mexico: 52) Laguna Madre, 53) Rio Tamesi Delta, Tampico Lagoons, & Laguna de Tamiahua, 54) Rio Papaloapan & Rio San Juan Deltas, 55) Usumacinta Delta, Tabasco Lagoons, 56) Laguna de Terminos, 57) Rio de Celestun, 58) Rio Lagartos, 59) Bahia de la Acension USA: 78) Everglades National Park, 84) Big Cypress Swamp, 86) Everglades System, 87) Mississippi Bottomland Hardwood System, 88) Apalachicola River and Bay, 89) Lake Ponchartrain, 90) Galveston Bay, 91) Mississippi Delta, 92) Southeastern Bottomland Hardwoods, 93) Aranas-Laguna Madre, 95) Lake Okeechobee, 120) Lake Kissimmee and River, 121) Louisiana - Texas Marshes, 122) Mobile Bay-Coastal Marshes Source: IWRB 1991. The numbers refer to the maps included in the original text.

The 10 countries with the longest coastlines account for nearly 75% of the total coastline. These countries include the US, Cuba, the Bahamas, Venezuela, Mexico, Colombia, Nicaragua, Jamaica, Haiti and Dominican Republic. Table 3 also includes continental shelf areas, but the data are incomplete and do not separate continental shelf area of the Wider Caribbean from Pacific or Atlantic Oceans.

In terms of forest cover, South America Caribbean is the sub-region with highest percentage and absolute amount of forest cover. The opposite extremes are found in the Insular Caribbean, while Central America occupies an intermediate position. Data for the Gulf States of the US and Mexico were not available.

Although the importance of the tropics for biodiversity conservation is unquestioned, there remains much to be done in regards to inventory of the region's biodiversity. Even when considering Biogeographic Provinces (Udvardy 1976) the diversity of the region is impressive, with 19 tropical and 3 temperate terrestrial ecosystems represented:

NEARTIC:	Austroriparian, Eastern Forest, Grasslands
MESOAMERICA:	Campechan, Sinaloan, Yucatecan, Guerreran, Central American, Panamanian,
INSULAR CARIBBEAN:	Bahamas-Bermudas, Cuban, Greater Antillean, Lesser Antillean
SOUTH AMERICA:	Colombian Coastal, Guyanan, Venezuelan Dry Forest, Venezuelan Deciduous Forest, Los Llanos, Campos Limpos, Northern Andean, Colombian Montane

All are represented by one or more protected areas, but generally the lack of detail in the Udvardy scheme limits its value for analysing biodiversity patterns at smaller scales. While a number of more detailed systems have been developed and applied in the region (Life Zones, Macro Vegetation Types) the lack of uniformity hinders regional comparisons.

The Wider Caribbean has a high level of biodiversity, even for tropical areas. ICBP (1992) used endemic bird distribution to identify priority areas for conservation throughout the world. Globally, 2,609 landbirds (27% of all species) were identified as having restricted breeding ranges located in 221 Endemic Bird Areas (EBA). The Wider Caribbean Region holds 25, or slightly more than 10% of all EBAs, and is home to 510 (20%) of the Restricted Range Species (RRS). Individually, Mexico and Colombia were rated 4th and 5th in terms of EBAs, while Venezuela was ranked 7th in terms of RRS.

TABLE 3. FOREST AND MARINE ENVIRONMENTS

		Forest Cover (1990)
Sub-regions, Countries and Territories	Land Area (1,000 ha)	(1,000 ha)	% of Total	Deforestation Rate	Coastline km	Continental Shelf (1000 km2)
Insular Caribbean
ANGUILLA (UK)	10	n.d.	0%	n.d.	56	n.d.
ANTIGUA & BARBUDA	44	10	23%	n.d.	178	n.d.
ARUBA (N)	19				76
BAHAMAS	1,393	186	13%	1.9%	3,542	85.70
BARBADOS	43		0%		97	0.30
BRITISH VIRGIN ISLANDS (UK)	15		0%		250
CAYMAN ISLANDS (UK)	26		0%		160	n.d.
CUBA	10,982	1,715	16%	0.9%	3,735	n.d.
DOMINICA	75	44	59%	0.6%	153	n.d.
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC	4,838	1,077	22%	2.5%	1,576	18.20
GRENADA	34	6	18%	5.0%	117	n.d.
GUADELOUPE (FR)	178	93	52%	0.3%	306	n.d.
HAITI	2,756	23	1%	3.9%	1,771	10.60
JAMAICA	1,083	239	22%	5.3%	1,022	40.10
MARTINIQUE (FR)	110	43	39%	0.4%	290	2.40
MONTSERRAT (UK)	10	n.d.	n.d.	n.d.	49	n.d.
NETHERLANDS ANTILLES	80	n.d.	n.d.	n.d.	390	n.d.
PUERTO RICO (USA)	890	321	36%	1.5%	585
ST. KITTS & NEVIS	26	13	50%	0.0%	130
ST. LUCIA	62	5	8%	3.8%	140
ST. VINCENT & GRENADINES	39	11	28%	3.8%	135
TRINIDAD & TOBAGO	513	155	30%	1.9%	362	29.20
TURKS & CAICOS ISLANDS (UK)	43				250
US VIRGIN ISLANDS	35				350
Subtotal	23,304	3,941	17%	1.7%	15,720	187
Central American Caribbean
BELIZE	2,280	1,996	88%	0.2%	386	n.d.
COSTA RICA	5,106	1,428	28%	2.6%	210	16
GUATEMALA	10,843	4,225	39%	1.6%	120	12
HONDURAS	11,189	4,605	41%	2.0%	700	54
NICARAGUA	11,875	6,013	51%	1.7%	550	73
PANAMA	7,599	3,117	41%	1.7%	1,200	57
Subtotal	48,892	21,384	44%	1.7%	3,166	212
South American Caribbean
COLOMBIA	103,870	54,064	52%	0.6%	1080	68
FRENCH GUIANA (FR)	9,000	7,997	89%	0.0%	378	n.d.
GUYANA	19,685	18,416	94%	0.1%	459	50
SURINAME	15,600	14,768	95%	0.1%	386	n.d.
VENEZUELA	88,205	45,690	52%	1.2%	2,800	88
Subtotal	236,360	140,935	60%	0.6%	5,103	206
North American Caribbean
MEXICO	70,093	N.D.		1.2%	2,900	442
USA (Gulf States)	122,409	N.D.		N.D.	3,389	1,808
Subtotal	192,502				6,289	2,250
GRAND TOTAL	501,058	166,260	33%		30,278	2,854

Sources: WRI 1994, Goode's World Atlas 1988.

TABLE 4. ENDEMIC BIRD AREAS

Endemic Bird Areas	Countries	No. of Restricted Range Species
Mexico & US Gulf States
Sierra Madre Oriental	Mexico & US	2
NE Mexican Gulf Slope	Mexico & US	4
Central Mexican Marshes	Mexico	2
Yucatan Peninsula	Belize, Guatemala, Honduras & Mexico	18
Central Mexican Highlands	Mexico	20
	Subtotal	46
Central America
Northern CA Highlands	Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico & Nicaragua	22
Southern CA Caribbean Slope	Costa Rica, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panama	10
Costa Rican & Panama Highlands	Costa Rica, Nicaragua & Panama	54
Northern Choco & Darien Lowlands	Colombia, Costa Rica & Panama	14
Darien Highlands	Colombia, Panama	15
	Subtotal	115
Insular Caribbean
Cuba & Bahamas	Bahamas, Cuba, Turks & Caicos	25
Jamaica	Jamaica	34
Hispaniola	Dominican Republic, Haiti	34
Puerto Rico	Puerto Rico	26
Eastern Caribbean	Antigua & Barbuda, Anguilla, Netherlands Antilles, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Guadeloupe, St. Kitts & Nevis, St. Lucia, Martinique, Montserrat, St. Vincent & Grenadines, US Virgin Islands	38
	Subtotal	157
South America
Guyanas	French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname	14
Tepuís	Guyana, Venezuela	42
Cordillera de Caripe and Paria Peninsula	Venezuela	13
Northern Venezuelan Mts.	Venezuela	18
Venezuelan Llanos	Colombia, Venezuela	2
Merida Mountains	Venezuela	27
Guajiran Lowlands	Colombia, Venezuela	11
Santa Marta Mountains	Colombia	21
Nechí Lowlands	Colombia	12
Eastern Andes of Colombia	Colombia, Venezuela	32
	Subtotal	192
	Grand Total	510

SOURCE: ICBP 1992. Putting Biodiversity on the map.

Within the Wider Caribbean, the South American sub-region has the highest numbers of Endemic Bird Areas (EBAs) and restricted range species (RRS) (10 areas and 192 species). The remaining sub-regions all count with 5 EBAs each, but the Insular Caribbean leads with 157 RRS, followed by Central America (115) and Mexico (46). No EBAs or RRS are centred in the continental US. In contrast, nearly all the Caribbean islands are included within EBAs. The Costa Rica-Panama Highlands are also notable, with 54 RRS. In addition to confirming the region's importance for biodiversity conservation, the study also highlights the need for regional co-operation as 70% of the EBAs span 2 or more countries.

Although the species diversity of the tropics is undisputed, taxonomic studies are far from complete, especially in relatively little studied, highly diverse, inaccessible ecosystems (soil invertebrates & microbes, deep sea, tropical forests). Researchers estimate that 10 million species inhabit the globe, while only 1.4 million have been identified (WRI 1994). Available information on species diversity for most of countries of the region has been tabulated by various organisations (TNC, Conservation International, WCMC). Summary data is by sub-region is presented below.

As is typical for the tropics, the area's species biodiversity is much higher than would be expected based on land area (3% of world total) alone. Figures for Mesoamerica indicate that this sub-region contains 13% of all mammal species, 14% of all bird species, 20% of all reptile species and 13% of amphibian species world-wide. Countries with high diversity such as Mexico and Colombia present similar figures.

While species numbers are much lower for the insular Caribbean, the majority of the islands have high levels of endemism, especially in the larger islands (see Table 5 ).

 

2.3. International Agreements and Programmes

Countries within the Wider Caribbean participate in a number of international, regional and sub-regional agreements, programmes and associations. While participation does not resolve the multiple planning and management problems facing protected areas managers, or even guarantee compliance with acquired obligations, it does facilitate the exchange of experiences between neighbouring countries, and brings international attention to policy and management issues.

TABLE 5. SPECIES DIVERSITY

Sources: WRI 1994, Mann 1986.
n.a. - not available

Presently, no overall studies have been prepared to evaluate the relative impact of international agreements and programmes in the region. Available information (WRI 1994, UNEP-SPAW 1995) has been tabulated and permits the comparison of overall, sub-regional, and national participation in conservation agreements and programmes (Table 6). Descriptions of each follows:

2.3.1 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND TREATIES

1. Amazon Co-operation Treaty (ATC, 1978).  This treaty has been signed by 8 countries sharing the Amazon Basin.  The treaty aims to establish regulations for the sustainable management of natural resources and multi-national projects throughout the Amazon watershed.  In 1989 a special environment committee was formed by the treaty signatories, and since 1990 a network on protected areas have been active.
2. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 1992).  The convention was signed in Nairobi shortly before the UN Summit Conference in Brasilia and entered into force in 1993 with the adhesion of 163 countries.  It commits participating countries to protect biological resources and includes provisions for biotechnology, access to and ownership of genetic material, knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities, and compensation to developing countries for the extraction of genetic resources.
3. Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention, 1983).  The convention and the associated protocol on marine pollution entered into force in 1986 and constitute the legal framework for the Caribbean Environment Programme (see below).  It promotes sustainable development through the management of coastal and marine resources.  It includes provisions for pollution control, Environmental Impact Assessments, education, training, public awareness, and biodiversity conservation.  A protocol on biodiversity was subsequently developed (see SPAW below) and another one on Land Based Sources and Activities of Marine Pollution is currently under development (UNEP 1983).
   
   Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW, 1990) The protocol was signed by 13 Contracting Parties to the Cartagena Convention. In 1991, three annexes were approved identifying fauna and flora requiring strict protection (Annexes I & II) and other species requiring protection under sustainable management guidelines. The Protocol advocates an ecosystem management approach and also lists groups of species requiring protection (e.g. coral reefs). The Protocol calls for the development of common guidelines for protected areas and species management, establishment of buffer zones and for national species recovery plans. It also established a Scientific and Technical Advisory Committee to guide practical implementation. Guidelines and criteria for the identification, selection, establishment and management of protected areas have been developed, as well as guidelines for revenue generation by protected areas (UNEP 1995b, 1995c). A training programme for trainers and protected areas personnel was developed (UNEP 1995d). Common guidelines for priority species management (namely manatees, sea turtles, migratory birds) were also developed (UNEP 1995e, 1995f).
4. Central American Biodiversity Convention (CABD, 1992).  The convention commits signatories to develop sustainable development strategies, which give priority to biodiversity conservation and the establishment of protected areas.  The Central America Commission on Environment and Development (CCAD) is charged with implementing the convention and updating and promoting the Central American Tropical Forestry and Protected Areas Action Plans.  The convention also mandates the establishment of a Central American Protected Areas Council, which has functioned on an interim basis since 1992.
5. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES, 1973).  This convention entered into force in 1975.  CITES protects endangered species from over-exploitation by controlling trade in live or dead animals, and animal parts through a permit system.
6. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOS, 1982).  The convention went into effect in 1994.  It establishes a comprehensive regime for the seas and oceans, establishes rules for environmental standards, and enforcement provisions, and develops international rules and national legislation to prevent and control marine pollution.
7. Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Migratory Species, 1972).  This convention entered into force in 1983.  It promotes the development of international agreements to protect species that migrate across international boundaries.
8. Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar, 1971).  The convention entered into force in 1975.  It is designed to stem the progressive encroachment,  degradation, and loss of wetlands.   Signatories recognise the ecological functions, and economic, cultural, scientific and recreational values of wetlands,  and agree to respect their international responsibilities in managing wetlands and will nominate at least 1 area to the international register of significant areas.  By 1993, 590 Ramsar Sites had been designated, covering 36 million ha.
9. Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Western Hemisphere Convention, 1940).  This treaty provides basic definitions for protected area management categories.
10. Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage, 1972) The convention came into force in December 1975.   Areas of outstanding universal value are designated as World Heritage Sites.  It aims to foster international co-operation in the safeguarding of these sites, which contain unique natural or cultural resources.   In 1994, 100 natural areas had been listed covering 100 million ha.

2.3.2 REGIONAL PROGRAMMES AND ASSOCIATIONS

12. Centro Agronomico Tropical de Investigacion y Ensenanza (CATIE, 1972) is a regional non-profit research, training and educational institute specialised in natural resource management and sustainable agriculture.  It carries out co-operative projects with 10 member countries.  Programmes in training and post graduate education are open to participants from throughout Latin America.
13. Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA, 1967) is a regional non-governmental organisation dedicated to evaluating conservation needs and co-ordinating activities throughout the Caribbean.  Management of marine protected areas is one the current programmes of the CCA.
14. Caribbean Environment Programme (CEP, 1981) is one of the Regional Seas Programmes supported by UNEP.  It was established by 36 states and territories of the Wider Caribbean for the protection of the marine and coastal environment and the promotion of balanced and sustainable development through regional co-operation.
    
    Programmatic areas include the development of action plans and guidelines covering integrated coastal management, species conservation and recovery, protected areas management, legislation and policy development, marine pollution assessment and control, environmental education, training and public awareness, information systems management, information exchange and networking.
    
    Regional Programme on Specially Protected Areas & Wildlife (SPAW, 1990). This part of the CEP has been developed to support the implementation of the SPAW Protocol. The programme includes the development of regional management guidelines and national recovery plans for marine turtles, preparation of environmental education materials for species conservation and regional and national management plans for manatees, development of protected areas training programme, modules and manuals, and the documentation of case studies on marine and coastal protected areas, income generation through protected areas management, and management of migratory birds on island environments. Programmatic actions are co-ordinated with a network of associated organisations, such as FAO, CANARI, CCA, IUCN, WIDECAST, and a number of governmental and academic institutions (UNEP 1995a).
15. Latin American Network for Technical Co-operation in National Parks, Protected Areas & Wildlife (LAN-NPPAW) is a programme supported by a joint FAO-UNEP project seeks to improve co-ordination in protected areas management throughout Latin America and the Caribbean.  Activities include the publication of a bulletin covering network activities, organisation of workshops and seminars on diverse aspects of protected areas management, publication of technical reports, and