CEP Technical Report No. 17 1992

Sea turtle stocks are declining throughout most of the Wider Caribbean region; in some areas the trends are dramatic and are likely to be irreversible during our lifetimes. According to the IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre's Red Data Book, persistent over-exploitation, especially of adult females on the nesting beach, and the widespread collection of eggs are largely responsible for the Endangered status of five sea turtle species occurring in the region and the Vulnerable status of a sixth. In addition to direct harvest, sea turtles are accidentally captured in active or abandoned fishing gear, resulting in death to tens of thousands of turtles annually. Coral reef and sea grass degradation, oil spills, chemical waste, persistent plastic and other marine debris, high density coastal development, and an increase in ocean-based tourism have damaged or eliminated nesting beaches and feeding grounds. Population declines are complicated by the fact that causal factors are not always entirely indigenous. Because sea turtles are among the most migratory of all Caribbean fauna, what appears as a decline in a local population may be a direct consequence of the activities of peoples many hundreds of kilometers distant. Thus, while local conservation is crucial, action is also called for at the regional level.

In order to adequately protect migratory sea turtles and achieve the objectives of CEP's Regional Programme for Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW), The Strategy for the Development of the Caribbean Environment Programme (1990-1995) calls for "the development of specific management plans for economically and ecologically important species", making particular reference to endangered, threatened, or vulnerable species of sea turtle. This is consistent with Article 10 of the Cartagena Convention (1983), which states that Contracting Parties shall "individually or jointly take all appropriate measures to protect ... the habitat of depleted, threatened or endangered species in the Convention area." Article 10 of the 1991 Protocol to the Cartagena Convention concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW Protocol) specifies that Parties "carry out recovery, management, planning and other measures to effect the survival of [endangered or threatened] species" and regulate or prohibit activities having "adverse effects on such species or their habitats". Article 11 of the SPAW Protocol declares that each Party "shall ensure total protection and recovery to the species of fauna listed in Annex II". All six species of Caribbean-occurring sea turtles were included in Annex II in 1991.

This CEP Technical Report is the fifth in a series of Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plans prepared by the Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Recovery Team and Conservation Network (WIDECAST), an organization comprised of a regional team of sea turtle experts, local Country Co-ordinators, and an extensive network of interested citizens. The objective of the recovery action plan series is to assist Caribbean governments in the discharge of their obligations under the SPAW Protocol, and to promote a regional capability to implement scientifically sound sea turtle conservation programs by developing a technical understanding of sea turtle biology and management among local individuals and institutions. Each recovery action plan summarizes the known distribution of sea turtles, discusses major causes of mortality, evaluates the effectiveness of existing conservation laws, and prioritizes implementing measures for stock recovery. WIDECAST was founded in 1981 by Monitor International, in response to a recommendation by the IUCN/CCA Meeting of Non-Governmental Caribbean Organizations on Living Resources Conservation for Sustainable Development in the Wider Caribbean (Santo Domingo, 26-29 August 1981) that a "Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plan should be prepared ... consistent with the Action Plan for the Caribbean Environment Programme." WIDECAST is an autonomous NGO, partially supported by the Caribbean Environment Programme.

True to the spirit and structure of the WIDECAST project (which consists of an international Sea Turtle Recovery Team ^1/ and resident Country Coordinators throughout the Wider Caribbean region), this Action Plan could not have been written without the enthusiasm and participation of many people over the last three years. First and foremost, the senior author owes a debt of gratitude to Thomas Honebrink, Peace Corps Volunteer, Conservation Officer for the Southeast Peninsula Land Development and Conservation Board, and Co-Founder of the Marine Division of the St. Christopher Heritage Society (SCHS), and to Joan Robinson, WIDECAST Country Coordinator-Nevis, Curator of the Museum of Nevis History, and Founding member of the Nevis Historical and Conservation Society (NHCS).

In addition to input from the WIDECAST Country Coordinators, the personal knowledge, pertinent literature, and creative thinking provided by Audra Barrett (Assistant Fisheries Officer), David Robinson (Chief Curator, NHCS), Leonard Huggins (Research Assistant, NH-CS), and Oliver 'Toms' Wilkes (Cooperatives Officer, Fisheries Division) in Nevis have been central to the development of this document. Robert Young (Vanier College, Quebec) and his students are responsible for a wide variety of marine and coastal field studies, conducted since 1990 under the aegis of the NHCS, which have greatly expanded the ecological database available for Nevis and as such have contributed meaningfully to this Recovery Action Plan. Also in Nevis, valuable information and/or programme support has been provided by the Hon. Malcolm Guisherd (Minister of Agriculture, Housing, Lands and Labour), Edred Ward (Senior Cooperatives Officer, Division of Fisheries, especially for providing tags from slaughtered sea turtles), Joseph Wiltshire (Assistant Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture, Housing, Lands and Labour), Augustine Merchant (Director, Dept. Agriculture), Ellis Chaderton (SCUBA Safaris Nevis), Les Windley (Sea Nevis Charter Boats), Lornette Hanley (Assistant Curator, Nevis Museum of History), Lloydster Parris (Research Assistant, NHCS), Paul Harris (NHCS Volunteer), the Nevis Environmental Education Committee, and many of the fishermen of Nevis.

David and Joan Robinson, Hyleta Liburd (Chief Education Officer, Department of Education), Serena Herbert (Science Club, Charlestown Secondary School), Pam Barry (Manager, Golden Rock Hotel), Sybil Seigfried (resident), and Dr. and Mrs. Adly Maguid (Owners, Newcastle Marina) arranged for sea turtle slide shows presented by WIDECAST in several public venues. Sharon Stanley, Brian Zimmerman, and Jim McLaughlin (Peace Corps Volunteers) integrated the "WIDECAST message" -- sea turtle biology and conservation -- into the environmental curriculum of the Nevis public school system. Many others have supported the local WIDECAST project; among those most involved with community sea turtle programmes and media coverage are Valerie Sargeant (Librarian, Nevis Public Library), Evered Herbert (Manager, VON radio), Thouvia France (VON radio), Mary Spooner (Host, Let's Talk, VON radio), and Steve Manners (Govt. Information Service; TBN Host, The Week Gone By). Karen Eckert is grateful to David and Joan Robinson, Robert Young, and Sharon Stanley for their friendship and generosity in providing housing and transportation during her repeated visits to Nevis.

In St. Kitts, Joseph Simmonds (Fisheries Officer), Ralph Wilkins (Assistant Fisheries Officer), Kate Orchard (SCHS Council member; biology and chemistry teacher, St. Teresa School), Campbell Evelyn (former Chair, Conservation Commission; conservationist), Charles Solas (fisherman), Kenneth Samuel and David Howlett (Kenneth's Dive Center), Oliver Spencer (Old Road Fisherman's Cooperative), Rikki Grober (Island Resources Foundation), Ricky Pereira (Owner, Turtle Beach Bar & Grill), Diana Honebrink (Peace Corps Volunteer, Environmental Educator), Jacqueline Cramer-Armony (Founding President, SCHS), and Tim Sands (Peace Corps Volunteer, Division of Fisheries) provided invaluable input, including fishing effort, sightings and nesting data, historical perspective, and creative solutions to contemporary stresses on sea turtles. Karen Eckert is grateful to Maria Bacci (Organization of American States), Tim Sands, and Tom and Diana Honebrink for their friendship and hospitality in providing housing and transportation during her repeated visits to St. Kitts.

The authors would also like to express their sincere appreciation to those people who attended the 22 October 1992 Community Meeting in St. Kitts (hosted by the SCHS Marine Division) to review and discuss this document. The participants included Campbell Evelyn, Joseph Simmonds, Oliver Spencer, Tim Sands, Diana Honebrink (affiliations noted above), Marian Dupré (Ballahoo Restaurant), Peter Dupré (SCHS Marine Division; St. Kitts Boat Club), Delroy Joseph (Customs Supervisor, Excise Dept.), Arlene Joseph (concerned citizen), Telca Wallace (concerned citizen), Everett Cozier (Basseterre Fisherman's Cooperative), Steve Shipe (U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service), Lee Graham (Basseterre Fisherman's Cooperative), Michael Embesi (Peace Corps Volunteer, Environmental Educator), Stanley Margolis (Kenneth's Dive Center), and Clyde James (Cooperatives Officer). Randy Walters (marine biologist) and Vincent Coker (Conservation Officer, Dept. Agriculture) reviewed the Plan but could not attend the meeting.

A special vote of thanks goes to the Estridge Primary School and to Ms. Susanna Lee (Head Teacher), who cared so much and worked so hard to learn about endangered sea turtles and to draft a Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plan of their own (see Introduction). We also thank the students of Cayon, Molineux, and Estridge primary schools who conducted interviews and wrote essays on the sea turtles of St. Kitts (see Appendix I). On a more personal note, TDH expresses gratitude to his wife Diana for her support and understanding during the long hours of preparation required to complete this Plan. Finally, the authors speak for all persons who selflessly gave of their time and expertise to this document in dedicating it to the sea turtles of St. Kitts/Nevis . . . and to the children who will inherit the results of the decisions we make today.

1/ The WIDECAST regional Recovery Team provided impetus for this document and critiqued earlier drafts. These persons are the following: Lic. Ana Cecilia Chaves (Costa Rica), Dr. Karen Eckert (USA), Jacques Fretey (France), John Fuller (Antigua), Molly Gaskin (Trinidad), Dr. Julia Horrocks (Barbados), Maria Teresa Koberg (Costa Rica), Dr. Peter Pritchard (USA), Dr. James Richardson (USA), and Dr. Georgita Ruiz (Mexico). The IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group (Dr. Karen Bjorndal, Chair) also provided useful comments on an earlier draft. Major financial support for WIDECAST has come from Monitor International, The Chelonia Institute, the UNEP Caribbean Environment Programme, and the U. S. National Marine Fisheries Service. Special appreciation is due Milton Kaufmann (President of Monitor International and Founder of WIDECAST) and Robert Truland (Trustee, The Chelonia Institute) for their unwavering personal commitment to WIDECAST since its inception more than a decade ago.

CCA	Caribbean Conservation Association
NCEPA	National Conservation and Environment Protection Act
NEEC	Nevis Environmental Education Committee
NGO	Non-government Organization
NHCS	Nevis Historical and Conservation Society
SCHS	St. Christopher Heritage Society
SEP	South-East Peninsula, St. Kitts
SEPLDCA	South-East Peninsula Land Development and Conservation Act
UNEP	United Nations Environment Programme
WIDECAST	Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Recovery Team and Conservation Network

Three species of sea turtle, all internationally classified as endangered species, nest on the beaches of St. Christopher (St. Kitts) and Nevis. These are the hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), green (Chelonia mydas), and leatherback or river turtle (Dermochelys coriacea). In addition to seasonal nesting, hawksbills and green turtles of varying sizes can be seen throughout the year feeding in shallow waters. The leatherback is not resident; gravid females arrive each year for a summer nesting season. A fourth species, the loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta), is occasionally observed offshore. The documented harvest of sea turtles in the federation dates back to 1603 when a work party dispatched to Nevis described a "Tortoyse so big that foure men could not get her into the Boate". The 18th century letters of William Smith declare green turtles to be "so common that they need no description." There is no doubt that the ubiquitous sea turtles were an important part of diet and commerce during the centuries of colonial occupation.

Today there are far fewer turtles than there were four or five decades ago. They have been both netted at sea and killed on the nesting beach. Turtle hunters and observers familiar with the fishery disagree on the exact number of turtles currently harvested per year, but it appears likely that 50-100+ turtles, mostly greens and hawksbills, are landed annually on each of the two islands. The number of nets set and the number of hunters who await gravid (egg-bearing) females on the nesting beaches is considerably lower than at any time in the past. The number of part-time turtle fishermen is estimated to be less than ten on each island. The number of spearfishermen landing sea turtles is growing, however, and this is viewed as a serious threat. The collection of eggs is unquantified but approaches 100% in some areas. There is no legislation governing the harvest of turtles or their eggs at the present time, but the draft Fisheries Regulations of 1992 call for a moratorium on the capture of turtles and the collection of eggs. Such a moratorium is fully supported by this Recovery Action Plan.

The most significant stress on local turtle populations has been a virtually unregulated harvest. The consequences of over-harvest are nowhere more evident than on the nesting beaches. There is a consensus that the beaches once supported many more nests than are seen today. Too many of the federation's breeding females have been killed and their eggs taken. It is self-evident that if eggs are not allowed to produce hatchlings, there will not be a next generation of turtles to lay their own eggs. The reason there are fewer turtles at sea is that the over-harvest has not been confined to St. Kitts and Nevis. All Caribbean nations have participated. Turtles born in St. Kitts and Nevis do not remain resident in our waters through the many years (usually 20-35) required to reach sexual maturity. Instead, they travel throughout the region during their adolescence and return to their natal beaches only when it is time to breed. Thus, the juveniles feeding offshore in coral reefs and sea grass meadows represent the young produced on nesting beaches throughout the Caribbean Sea, whereas the females on our nesting beaches were born here many years ago and migrate "home" every 2-3 years to lay their own eggs.

The objectives of this Recovery Action Plan are to explain the biology of sea turtles, to provide an overview of the status and distribution of sea turtles in St. Kitts and Nevis, and to recommend conservation actions designed to promote the recovery of depleted stocks. In addition to the protection of turtles and eggs, the preservation of important feeding and nesting habitats is necessary. A few nesting beaches have been lost in recent decades, mostly to harbour development, but coming decades will see an unprecedented commercialization of the coastline. Several large hotels on the Southeast Peninsula and elsewhere are in planning or construction stages. Offshore, an increase in yacht and cruise ship traffic will mean increased solid waste and pollution, anchoring, and recreational use of the often fragile seabed (e.g., coral reefs). Integrated coastal zone planning with an eye to safeguard the precious coastal zone for future generations is needed. Regulations should include adequate construction setbacks, protection for coastal vegetation, sewage and waste disposal, moorings and other measures described in this Recovery Action Plan. In addition to national coastal zone management, improved law enforcement is necessary. A Division of Environmental Enforcement is recommended.

A five-year national Sea Turtle Conservation Programme is herein proposed. The goals of the programme are (1) to obtain comprehensive and accurate data on the distribution of turtle nesting and foraging habitat and (2) to promote the conservation and recovery of remaining sea turtle stocks. Activities, including habitat and market surveys, management planning, training, and environmental education, are fully described in the text. In addition to national efforts to conserve sea turtles, it is essential that St. Kitts and Nevis support international initiatives to conserve these highly migratory reptiles. In this regard, the Government is encouraged to ratify CITES, MARPOL, and the UNEP Cartagena Convention (with SPAW Protocol). In summary, an integrated approach to the continuing decline of sea turtles is needed, including strong domestic and regional legislation, habitat protection, population monitoring, and enhanced public awareness.

In order to ensure that the necessary regulations to safeguard turtles and their habitats have grassroots community support, user groups (e.g., fishermen), conservationists, government personnel, restaurant owners, and concerned citizens actively participated in the development of this Recovery Action Plan. The process of involving the community is essential and we recommend that full advantage be taken of Town Meetings and the media to increase public awareness of the plight of the sea turtle and of the island environment in general. The support and active participation of all citizens is needed if the twenty-first century is to fulfill a promise of independence and prosperity for the people of St. Kitts and Nevis -- and the hope of survival to many endangered wildlife species, including sea turtles.

Tres especies de tortugas de mar, todas ellas clasificadas internacionalmente como especies en peligro de extinción, anidan en las playas de St. Kitts y Nevis. Estas son, la tortuga carey (Eretmochelys imbricata), la tortuga verde del Atlántico (Chelonia mydas), y la tortuga tora o de río (Dermochelys coriacea). Además de en la temporada de anidación se pueden ver tortugas carey y verde de varios tamaños durante todo el año, alimentándose en aguas de poca profundidad. La tortuga tora no es residente; las hembras grávidas llegan cada año para la tem-porada de anidación de verano. Una cuarta especie, la tortuga de mar (Caretta caretta), se observa ocasionalmente frente a las costas. El aprovechamiento de las tortugas marinas en la fed-eración, que se halla documentado, data de 1603 cuando una partida de trabajo enviada a Nevis describió una "Tortuga tan grande que ni cuatro hombres pudieron subirla al bote". Las cartas de William Smith del Siglo XVIII declaran que las tortugas verdes "son tan comunes que no necesitan describirse." No hay duda de que las omnipresentes tortugas constituían una parte importante de la dieta y el comercio durante los siglos de ocupación colonial.

Hoy existen mucho menos tortugas que hace cuarenta o cincuenta años. Las han cogido en redes y se han muerto en las playas donde anidan. Los cazadores y los observadores de tor-tugas que saben de la pesca, no se ponen de acuerdo sobre el número exacto de tortugas que actualmente se aprovechan por año, pero parece probable que de 50 a más de 100 tortugas, en su mayoría verdes y carey aparezcan anualmente en las playas de cada una de las islas. El número de redes lanzadas y el número de cazadores que aguardan las hembras grávidas (portadoras de huevos) en las playas donde anidan es considerablemente menor que en cualquier época pasada. La cantidad de pescadores de tortugas de medio tiempo, se estima en menos de diez en cada isla. Sin embargo, la cantidad de pescadores con harpón que desembarcan tortugas marinas está aumentando, y esto se ve como una seria amenaza. La recogida de huevos no se ha cuantificado, pero se aproxima al 100 por ciento en algunas áreas. En la actualidad no existe legislación que rija el aprovechamiento de las tortugas o de sus huevos, pero el borrador de las Reglas de Pesquerías de 1992, exige una moratoria en la captura de tortugas y la recogida de huevos. Tal moratoria se encuentra apoyada plenamente por este Plan de Acción para el Rescate de la Tortuga Marina.

La sobrecarga más significativa en las poblaciones de tortugas locales ha sido un aprove-chamiento, virtualmente no regulado. Las consecuencias del aprovechamiento excesivo se hallan en ningún lugar más evidente que en las playas de anidación. Es de consenso general el que las playas acogieron, una vez, muchos más nidos que los que actualmente se ven. Se ha matado demasiadas hembras grávidas de la federación o se les ha quitado sus huevos. Es evidente que si no se permite que los huevos produzcan ejemplares jóvenes, no habrá una próxima generación de tortugas que ponga sus propios huevos. La razón por la que hay menos tortugas en el mar es que el aprovechamiento excesivo no se limita a St. Kitts y Nevis. Todas las naciones del Caribe han participado. Las tortugas que nacen en St. Kitts y Nevis no permanecen residentes en nuestras aguas a través de los muchos años necesarios (20-35) para alcanzar la madurez sexual. En cambio, durante su adolescencia viajan a todo lo largo de la región y regresan a sus playas natales solo cuando es tiempo para reproducirse. Por consiguiente, los juveniles que se alimentan en los arrecifes coralinos y los pastizales marinos representan tortugas producidas en las playas de anidación a lo largo del Mar Caribe, mientras que las hembras en nuestras playas de anidación, nacieron aquí hace muchos años y migran "a casa" cada 2 o 3 años para poner sus propios huevos.

Los objetivos de este Plan de Acción son explicar la biología de las tortugas marinas, proporcionar una panorámica de la situación y la distribución de las tortugas marinas en St. Kitts y Nevis, y recomendar acciones para la conservación, diseñadas para fomentar la recuperación de reservas mermadas. Además de la protección de tortugas y huevos, se hace necesario la conservación de importantes habitats nidos y de alimentación. En décadas recientes se han perdido unas pocas playas de anidación, en su mayor parte por el desarrollo de los puertos, pero los decenios venideros verán una comercialización sin precedentes de la faja costera. Varios grandes hoteles de la Península Sudoriental y de otras partes, se encuentran en las etapas de planificación o construcción. En mar abierto, un aumento en el tráfico de barcos y yates significará un aumento en los desechos sólidos y la contaminación, el fondeo y el uso del lecho marino (ej. arrecifes coralinos), a menudo frágil. Es necesaria la planificación integrada de las zonas costeras con vistas a salvaguardar las preciosas costas para las generaciones futuras. Los reglamentos debieran incluír la construcción de edificaciones de blindaje apropiadas, protección de la vegetación costera, eliminación de desechos y de aguas residuales, amarraderos y otras medidas que se describen en este Plan de Acción para el Rescate de la Tortuga Marina. Además de la ordenación de la zona costera, es necesario una mejor ejecución de la ley. Se recomienda la creación de una División para la Observancia Forzosa de las Leyes Ambientales.

Se propone aquí un Programa de Conservación de la Tortuga Marina a nivel nacional, de cinco años de duración. Las metas del programa son (1) obtener información exhaustiva y precisa sobre la distribución de los habitats donde anidan y donde se alimentan y (2) fomentar la conservación y la recuperación de las reservas de tortugas restantes. Las actividades, que comprenden estudios de mercado y de habitat, planificación del manejo, capacitación, y educación ambiental, se hallan descritas completamente en el texto. Además de los esfuerzos nacionales para conservar las tortugas marinas, es esencial que St. Kitts y Nevis apoyen las iniciativas internacionales para conservar estos reptiles altamente migratorios. A este respecto, se anima al Gobierno a ratificar los acuerdos de CITES, el Convenio de Cartagena del PNUMA (con el Protocolo de SPAW), y MARPOL. En resumen, es necesario un enfoque integral del descenso continuo de las tortugas marinas, que comprenda una fuerte legislación nacional y regional, la protección de los habitats, el monitoreo de la población y un aumento en la concientización pública.

Para asegurar que las regulaciones necesarias para salvaguardar las tortugas y sus habitats tengan el apoyo popular de la comunidad, grupos de usuarios (ej: pescadores), conservacionistas, funcionarios del gobierno, propietarios de restaurantes y ciudadanos preocupados participaron en la elaboración de este Plan de Acción para el Rescate de la Tortuga Marina. El proceso por el que se involucra a la comunidad es esencial y recomendamos que se aproveche tanto las reuniones del ayuntamiento como los medios de comunicación para aumentar la concientización pública de la defensa de la tortuga marina y en general, del medio ambiente de la isla. Se necesita el apoyo y la participación activa de todos los ciudadanos si para el Siglo XXI se quiere cumplir la promesa de independencia y prosperidad para el pueblo de St. Kitts y Nevis -- y la esperanza de supervivencia para muchas especies silvestres en peligro, incluso las tortugas marinas.

Trois espèces de tortues de mer, toutes classées comme des espèces menacées, pondent leurs œufs sur les plages de St. Kitts et Nièves. Il s'agit de la tortue cahouanne (Eretmochelys imbricata), la tortue verte (Chelonia mydas) et la tortue cuir ou tortue de rivière (Dermochelys coriacea). Les tortues cahouannes et les tortues vertes de tailles différentes ne se remarquent pas uniquement pendant la saison de la ponte, mais également pendant l'année lorsqu'elles s'alimentent dans les eaux peu profondes. La tortue cuir n'est pas résidente; les femelles gravides arrivent chaque année pour faire leurs nids pendant l'été. Une quatrième espèce, la tortue à écailles, (Caretta caretta) se remarque de temps en temps au large. D'après la documentation la capture de tortues de mer dans la fédération remonte à 1603, date à laquelle un groupe de travail envoyé à Nevis a parlé d'une "tortue si grande que quatre hommes n'ont pas pu la mettre dans le bateau." William Smith, dans des lettres écrites au 18ème siècle a déclaré que "les tortues vertes [étaient] si grandes qu'elles dépassent toute description." Il n'y a aucun doute que les tortues de mer toujours présentes représentaient une partie importante du régime alimentaire et du commerce pendant les siècles d'occupation coloniale.

Aujourd'hui, il y a beaucoup moins de tortues qu'il y a quatre ou cinq décennies. Elles ont été capturées en mer aussi bien que sur les plages pendant leur ponte. Les chasseurs aussi bien que les observateurs au courant de ces captures ne sont pas du même avis quant au nombre exact de tortues qui sont capturées chaque année; il semble néanmoins qu'entre 50 et 100 tortues environ, vertes et cahouannes pour la plupart, sont prises chaque année sur chacune des deux îles. Le nombre de filets placés et le nombre de chasseurs qui attendent les femelles gravides sur les plages est beaucoup plus bas que dans le passé. Le nombre de personnes qui chassent des tortues à temps partiel est estimé à moins de 10 sur chaque île. Néanmoins, le nombre de pêcheurs harponneurs capturant des tortues est en hausse et cette situation est considérée comme menaçante. La collecte d'œufs ne peut pas être chiffrée, mais s'élève à 100% dans certaines zones. Il n'existe actuellement aucune législation interdisant la capture des tortues ou de leurs œufs n'existe; néanmoins la Réglementation de 1992 en matière de pêche appelle à un moratoire sur la capture des tortues et la collecte de leurs œufs. Le présent Plan d'action pour la sauvegarde des tortues de mer appuie pleinement ce moratoire.

La capture non reglementée constitue la plus forte pression exercée sur les populations locales de tortues. Les plages où pondent les tortues portent le plus grand nombre de traces de surexploitation. Il n'y a aucun doute que les plages accueillaient beaucoup plus de nids qu'aujourd'hui. Trop de femelles parmi les populations de tortues dans la fédération ont été tuées et leurs œufs pris. Il est clair que si l'on empêche la reproduction des tortues par les œufs, il n'y aura pas de nouvelle génération de tortues pour pondre à son tour. Il y a moins de tortues en mer car la surexploitation ne s'est pas limitée à St. Kitts et Nièves. Tous les pays des Caraïbes y ont participé. Les tortues nées à St. Kitts et Nièves ne restent pas dans nos eaux pendant toute la période nécessaire (20 à 35 ans) pour atteindre leur maturité sexuelle. Elles voyagent dans la région pendant leur adolescence et ne retournent à leurs plages natales que lorsqu'elles sont prêtes à se reproduire. Les jeunes qui se trouvent sur nos plages y sont nées il y a plusieurs années et reviennent "à la maison" tous les deux à trois ans pour pondre leurs propres œufs.

Le présent Plan d'action pour la sauvegarde des tortues a pour objectifs d'expliquer la biologie des tortues de mer, de fournir une vue d'ensemble sur l'état et la distribution des tortues de mer à St. Kitts et Nièves, et de proposer des actions de préservation visant à rétablir les populations qui ont été diminuées. En plus de la protection des tortues et de leurs œufs, il est nécessaire de préserver les importants habitats d'alimentation et de reproduction. Quelques plages utilisées pour la reproduction ont été perdues au cours des années récentes, dû en particulier au développement des ports et au cours des décennies à venir, l'on assistera à une commercialisation sans précédent de la zone côtière. Plusieurs grands hôtels sont en voie de planification ou de construction dans la Péninsule sud-est et ailleurs. Une augmentation de la circulation des yachts et des bateaux de croisière engendra une augmentation des déchets et de la pollution, de l'ancrage et de l'utilisation, à des fins de loisirs, des fonds de mer souvent fragiles (des récifs coralliens, par exemple). La planification intégrée de la zone côtière est indispensable pour sauvegarder l'importante zone côtière pour les générations futures. La réglementation devrait inclure des côntroles adéquats sur la construction, la protection de la végétation côtière, l'évacuation des eaux usées et des déchets, l'ancrage et d'autre mesures décrites dans le présent Plan d'action de sauvegarde. En plus de la gestion de la zone côtière nationale, il faudrait envisager une amélioration de l'application par voie judiciaire. Il est recommandé de créer une Section pour l'application de la loi de l'environnement.

Ce document propose un Programme quinquennal pour la préservation des tortues de mer. Il a pour objectifs 1) d'obtenir des données complètes et précises sur la distribution des habitats des tortues pour la reproduction et l'alimentation et 2) de promouvoir la protection et la sauvegarde des populations de tortues de mer restantes. Le texte fournit le détail des activités, y compris des études du marché et des habitats, la planification de la gestion, la formation et l'éducation environnementale. En plus des efforts pour préserver les tortues de mer, St. Kitts et Nièves devrait appuyer les initiatives internationales visant à protéger ces reptiles très migrateurs. A cet égard, il est vivement recommandé au Governement de ratifier les Conventions de CITES, MARPOL et la Convention de Carthagène du PNUE (y compris son Protocole SPAW). En bref, une approche intégrée est nécessaire pour combattre le déclin des populations de tortues, y compris, une législation national et régionale solide, la protection des habitats, la surveillance des populations et une plus grande sensibilisation du public.

Afin de s'assurer de l'appui au niveau de la communauté pour la mise en place de la reglementation nécessaire pour sauvegarder les tortues et leurs habitats, les groupes d'utilisateurs (les pêcheurs, par exemple), les écologistes, les responsables gouvernementaux, les restaurateurs et des citoyens intéressés ont participé activement à l'élaboration du présent Plan d'action de sauvegarde. Il est indispensable de faire participer la communauté dans ces efforts et nous proposons que l'on profite au maximum des réunions municipales et des médias pour sensibiliser le public au problème particulier de la tortue de mer et à celui de l'écologie de l'île plus général. L'appui et la participation active de tous les citoyens est nécessaire pour relever le défi du 21ème siècle, un défi d'indépendance et de prospérité pour le peuple de St. Kitts et Nièves ainsi que d'espoir de survie pour les espèces sauvages menacées, dont les tortues de mer.

St. Christopher and Nevis (hereafter, St. Kitts/Nevis) is a two island nation in the north-eastern Caribbean Sea comprised of St. Kitts (176 km²; 17°15'N, 62°45'W) and Nevis (93 km²; 17°10'N, 62°35'W) situated three km to the southeast (Figures 1 and 2). The written history of the islands begins in 1493 with the accounts of Christopher Columbus, who claimed the islands for Spain. Spain made no attempt to colonize them, however, and Carib dominion lasted until the early 17th century when resource-hungry northern Europeans descended on the Eastern Caribbean in force. The 1600's were characterised by the massacre and enslavement of the native Caribs by the English and French, and decades of intermittent colonial warfare for control of the fertile islands. The English were ultimately triumphant and enjoyed a century of prosperity based on sugar plantations and slavery. Fluctuating market conditions after 1820 and labour problems arising from slave emancipation in 1838 brought the era to a close, but sugar continued to dominate the local economy. The last Nevisian sugar mill shut down in 1958 and the last commercial crop was harvested in 1969 (Richardson, 1983). Sugar continues to contribute to the Kittitian economy, along with tourism, construction, light manufacturing, and local agriculture and fishing (CCA, 1991). The two islands became an independent nation in September 1983. The most recent national census reported 9,130 persons in Nevis (May 1991) and 41,870 persons in St. Kitts (mid-year 1990).

The social and economic history of the islands has had a profound effect on the environment, including sea turtles and their habitats. Vast areas of reef deteriorated over many decades as pieces of coral were collected for refinement into lime, timber was cut to prepare the land for agriculture (resulting in upland erosion, sediment-laden runoff, and siltation of the nearshore marine zone), and runoff laden with agricultural chemicals found its way to the sea. More recently, coral reefs have been destroyed by anchoring and beaches have been lost to or degraded by sand mining, coastal development, increasing visitation, and natural disasters. Sea turtles themselves have been harvested for two millennia or more. Preliminary excavations of 21 early settlements in Nevis reveal occasional sea turtle bones in sites dating from 200 BC to 1500 AD (Samuel Wilson, University of Texas, pers. comm., 1991). The first written account of a visit to Nevis described an abundance of turtles. According to Hubbard (1992), Captain Bartholemew Gilbert of Plymouth, England, sailed to Nevis with a work party of 20 men and boys for the purpose of cutting Lignum vitae wood. An entry penned on 19 June 1603 stated, "This day in the Evening some went with the Boate unto the shore, and brought on board a Tortoyse so big that foure men could not get her into the Boate but tied her fast by one legge unto the Boate, and so towed her to the ship, when they had her by the ship, it was no easie matter to get her on board. ...This day at night we opened our Tortoyse, which had in her about 500 Egges, excellent sweet meat, and so is the whole fish."

There were so many sea turtles in both Nevis and St. Kitts that Gilbert's crew complained that when they cast nets for fish, turtles were continually caught in them. The ubiquitous sea turtles caused the nets to burst and allowed the fish to escape (Hubbard, 1992). Smith (1745) wrote, "Green [sea turtles] . . . are so common that they need no description". Nearly a century later, a 1698 Act regulated the prices of fresh provisions, including fresh turtle, at 6½d per pound (Gordon, 1985). Today the harvest of both turtles and eggs continues, although by all accounts there are far fewer turtles than there used to be. Four species are found in local waters.

They are the green (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) and, rarely, the loggerhead (Caretta caretta) (Figure 3). Long-time residents remember the British custom of the Town Crier announcing the catch of a turtle and its impending slaughter for market. Mr. Douglas Yearwood recalled this rhyme as he had heard it as a young boy growing up in St. Kitts:

The catch of a turtle was not an everyday occurrence, and the practice of announcing the kill served to alert the community that the delicacy would soon be available. Following the enactment of conservation legislation in 1948, the habit of publicly announcing the catch served the additional purpose of discouraging fishermen from bringing turtles in illegally during the closed season. Cecil Byron, now Chief Magistrate in Nevis, recalls clearly a similar chant recited in Nevis when sea turtles were to be offered in the public market. The meat was cheaper than beef and comparable in price to pork and fish. In the 1960's the public announcements were discarded as "colonial and old-fashioned" (Douglas Yearwood, pers. comm., 1992).

While the Town Crier was familiar in urban areas, such as Basseterre, the catch of a turtle was not publicly announced in more rural areas of St. Kitts or Nevis. A turtle was not considered unusual in the coastal villages; indeed, turtles were typically part of a fisherman's haul. Ralph Wilkins (Assistant Fisheries Officer), who grew up in rural Sandy Point (St. Kitts) in the 1950-60's, recalls that it was commonplace to store sea turtles communally beneath those houses in the village that were constructed on stilts. Turtles were butchered as buyers were available. The Sunday morning meal was traditionally one of turtle meat and eggs, the latter rolled in flour and spices and fried into fritters. Similarly, turtle fishermen and older residents in Nevis confirm that the practice of "stockpiling" turtles under elevated houses or other usable structures was the norm. The turtles were common and it was not atypical to bring in more than could be immediately consumed. They would survive many days on their backs if kept shaded. There appears to be a general consensus amongst knowledgeable residents that the 1970's brought a noticeable decline in stocks, both at sea and on the nesting beaches. Long-time divers agree that turtles at sea are today both fewer and smaller. The beaches of the Southeast Peninsula were described to the authors as "desolate" compared to the number of eggs laid there 20 years ago.

It is unfortunate that there are no historical records available regarding the number of fishermen involved in the turtle fishery or their annual catch. In a report prepared for the Second Western Turtle Symposium, Wilkins and Barrett (1987) concluded that relatively few fishermen had actively pursued sea turtles in recent years; of roughly 650 active fishermen, "only a-bout 40" were engaged in the turtle industry at the time of their writing. Barrett (1987) reported the total catch in 1986-87 to be about 110 turtles (mainly greens and hawksbills) and the average weight of turtles landed to be about 65 lb (30 kg). The following year, during the 1987-88 open season, only "eight fishermen [in Nevis were] directly engaged in the [turtle] fishing, operating 10 nets specifically for this purpose". The catch that year (47 turtles, mostly female hawksbills) was low (Barrett, 1988). There are no comparable data for St. Kitts. From interviews conducted during the development of this Recovery Action Plan, the authors estimate that the catch may approach 100 turtles per year in St. Kitts and that this has been the case for most of the 1980's. While there are relatively few "turtle fishermen", most likely less than 10, an increasing number of spear-fishermen are targeting turtles whenever the opportunity arises.

In the past, most turtles were captured in nets designed to ensnare them. The nets ranged from 50-75 feet in length and 7-10 feet deep, with a mesh size of 8-10 inches. Some turtles were taken during nesting. Some turtle fishermen claim that by watching the sky, such as for "pitching stars", they could predict when a turtle was likely to nest. Today the tradition of staying up all night waiting to capture egg-bearing turtles on the nesting beach continues in both St. Kitts and Nevis, especially in the "turtle villages" (e.g., Sandy Point, Cayon, Keys) of St. Kitts. Eggs are routinely collected on both islands. It is widely claimed that virtually every egg is harvested and either shared with friends or, more rarely, sold. Turtles are also taken from the sea. Large-mesh turtle nets are regularly set by Nevisian fishermen in Nevisian waters and in the bays of the Southeast Peninsula (Audra Barrett, Assistant Fisheries Officer, pers. comm., 1992). Turtle nets are rarely set by Kittitian fishermen. A significant number of fishermen and recreational divers take turtles opportunistically, in and out of season, by spearing. The opportunistic take is certain to be higher than the directed take at the present time. Many of those captured are under-sized (turtles less than 20 lb (9 kg) are protected; see section 4.21).

According to Kenneth Samuel, native Kittitian, former turtle hunter and long-time diver, the hawksbill turtle is becoming rare in St. Kitts, at least in Caribbean (south shore) waters. The few individuals once seen around the Talata wreck in Basseterre Harbour were lost about three years ago when a local fishermen set his nets on the wreck. Samuel knows of only one site (the River Taw wreck) where they have been regularly seen in recent years. Other divers and fishermen contend that there are several shallow reef sites where hawksbills are observed. No one, however, disputes a serious decline in numbers over the course of recent decades. Twenty years ago, hunters would let a female nest up to six times on South Friar's Beach before killing her "and the attending male" (K. Samuel, pers. comm., 1992). In contrast, not a single nest was reported on South Friar's Beach from 29 June-12 August 1992. When Samuel became involved in dive-tourism and realised the extent to which marine resources were deteriorating, he gave up turtle hunting. Similarly, Charles Solas recalls that in years past he had his choice of six or more leatherbacks per night on the Atlantic beaches of St. Kitts; now many nights go by during the nesting season before a female comes ashore. There are beaches on both islands where nesting occurred in the past, but no longer. Today turtle hunting is largely a past-time, a cultural tradition, for participating fishermen. There are no full-time turtle fishermen.

From 1948-1992, regulations were in force to regulate the harvest of sea turtles. The Turtle Ordinance of 1948 protected turtles less than 20 lb (9 kg) and prohibited the killing, sale or possession of any turtle product between 1 June and 30 September. During the open season the meat of both hawksbill and green turtles was sold mostly to hotel restaurants; the shells were often used for wall decorations or jewelry. Today most restaurants refuse to buy turtle meat, some in deference to the endangered status of local and regional populations. There is a limited market on St. Kitts for oil rendered from the leatherback, which is used for medicinal purposes. Oil in the possession of Charles Solas was selling for EC$ 11-12 per bottle in the summer of 1992. There is apparently no market for leatherback meat or oil in Nevis. Green and hawksbill meat is consumed locally or exported to neighbouring islands (section 3.3). In contrast to the situation prior to the 1970's when the turtle fishery was a major source of income for some fishermen, there are no fishermen at the present time that depend solely or principally on sea turtles or their eggs for their livelihood. Interview data suggest that monies derived from turtles comprise less than 10% of a fisherman's income.

It is clear that the days of abundance are over. Fishermen alive today remember a time when ocean resources of all kinds seemed infinite. This is no longer the case, not with fishes, not with lobsters, not with turtles. It will not be easy for micro-states like St. Kitts/Nevis to meet the challenges of the twenty first century, but one thing is certain -- if we do not actively pursue a vision of the future that includes native wildlife, then the islands we pass to our children will be impoverished of spirit and weakened of potential. The future of our now endangered sea turtles currently rests in the hands of a few hunters who are exterminating them. If we do nothing as a government or as a community to improve the economic status of our fishermen and to educate ourselves not, for instance, to consume turtle eggs, then the turtles will surely be exterminated in our lifetimes. What will St. Kitts/Nevis look like in thirty years? It seems like a long time, but in fact it represents but a single generation for a sea turtle. Will there still be sandy beaches suitable for incubating eggs? Healthy coral reefs? Clean water? The time for decision -- and action -- is now.

This Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plan is dedicated to the next generation, to a future that includes both economic prosperity for people and the survival of sea turtles. Much of the general background narrative was drawn from the recently completed Country Environmental Profile for St. Kitts and Nevis (CCA, 1991) and from the remarkable volume of documentation compiled in 1989 for the Southeast Peninsula Land Development and Conservation Board. The Profile was prepared under the aegis of the Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA) with technical support from the Island Resources Foundation, the St. Christopher Heritage Society (SCHS), and the Nevis Historical and Conservation Society (NHCS). The Southeast Peninsula reports were prepared by a variety of experts and made possible by a grant from the U. S. Agency for International Development. Both the Profile and detailed information now available on the natural resources of the Southeast Peninsula constitute major contributions to the literature available to local policy-makers, who must make increasingly difficult decisions balancing the long-term requirements of ecology and economy.

Similarly, but with a much more focused agenda, this comprehensive Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plan is designed to provide policy-makers and non-government groups with detailed information requisite to make informed decisions. This document, tailored specifically to the circumstances of St. Kitts and Nevis, is one of a series of Recovery Action Plans developed by the WIDECAST project. It was written in collaboration with the WIDECAST network in St. Kitts/Nevis and with the support of a regional team of sea turtle experts. Joan Robinson (Curator, Museum of Nevis History) and Tom Honebrink (Conservation Officer, SEP Land Development and Conservation Board) are the WIDECAST Country Coordinators [N.B. Honebrink, a Peace Corps Volunteer, will be replaced as project coordinator in St. Kitts at the end of his tour in mid-1993; a member of the SCHS will be selected to fill the position]. Our intentions in developing this Action Plan are to (1) summarize the status and distribution of local sea turtle populations, (2) examine threats to their survival, and (3) recommend conservation actions to be taken on their behalf. The consensus is that sea turtles in St. Kitts/Nevis are fewer today than at any time during the twentieth century. In order to promote the survival of remaining stocks, a national Sea Turtle Conservation Programme is herein proposed (section 4.6).

Before proceeding with the main body of the text, the authors would like to give special recognition to the fifth and sixth grade students at Estridge Primary School in St. Kitts. Their environmental studies teacher, Peace Corps Volunteer Diana Honebrink, devoted class time in October 1992 to a discussion of sea turtle biology and the concept of a national recovery plan for endangered sea turtles. The students then wrote a Recovery Action Plan of their own. They worked together in small groups, each with a specific section of the plan as their responsibility. The following text, entitled Estridge Primary School Recovery Action Plan for Sea Turtles in St. Kitts and Nevis, reflects a remarkable grasp of the subject matter. It also eloquently reminds us that we do not inherit the earth from our parents, we only borrow it from our children.

INTRODUCTION: The sea turtles are dying out and soon they will be extinct. People are killing them for their meat and shells, and sometimes killing them for fun. People also take the female turtle's eggs. If people take the eggs all the time, soon all turtles will die out. People are killing the big leatherback turtles so they can make oil. We need to save the turtles so that their populations will increase.

BIOLOGY: Green turtles live in the sea. They eat sea grass, are coloured yellow and green, sleep in coral reefs, and do not have a pointed face like the hawksbill turtle does. Hawksbill turtles live in the sea. They have a very funny-shaped nose and a beak like a hawk. They eat all kinds of different sea things. Leatherbacks live in the sea. They have a soft back and eat jellyfish.

THREATS TO SEA TURTLES: The worst threats are (1) killing the turtles so that soon there will be no more of them, (2) taking the eggs so that no young will hatch, (3) destroying the sea turtle's habitat so that there will not be any place for them to live, (4) throwing garbage into the sea and then the sea turtles they might eat the garbage and become extinct, (5) poisoning the sea with oil, (6) troubling the young turtles after the eggs hatch.

SOLUTIONS TO THREATS FACING SEA TURTLES: (1) Protect the turtles -please stop killing the turtles when they come to lay their eggs and protect all ages of sea turtles, including the eggs; don't trouble the eggs. (2) Protect important habitat -stop polluting the water, stop driving your vehicle on the sand, stop taking away the sand from the beach, put signs on the beaches that say "Please stop digging up the sand", stop building hotels on the beaches, put signs near the sea that say "Don't pull up the sea grass", don't throw garbage in the sea because it can harm sea turtles, don't throw oil in the sea water because it can kill sea turtles, don't dig in the sand because there can be eggs in the sand and you can destroy the eggs.

IMPLEMENTING THE RECOVERY PLAN: We could tell one another like our friends, mother and father, families and neighbours. If you want to tell the whole world, you could call on a telephone, or write a letter or an article for a magazine or newspaper, or go to everyone's houses, or appear on television. The Honorable Roy Jones [Constituency Representative] and the policemen should come and talk to the people of St. Kitts and Nevis and tell them to help us with the sea turtles. Tell them -"Don't trouble their eggs, don't cut off their flippers, and if you trouble their eggs all the time there will be less turtles. Also, don't take them home as pets." If we tell people the first time, they won't agree with us. But if they don't agree with us, we could go on telling them and explaining to them that we want the sea turtles to live always. Then maybe they will agree with us.

There are no indigenous common names applied to this species; the preferred name is "loggerhead". The loggerhead turtle is recognized by its large head, thick, somewhat tapered carapace (=shell), brown and gold or reddish-brown colouration, and characteristically heavy encrustation of invertebrate epifauna (especially barnacles). The large head and strong jaws, for which the species was named, are necessary adaptations to a diet of mollusks and hard-shelled crabs; tunicates, fishes, and plants are also eaten (Dodd, 1988). Adults attain a straight carapace length of 120 cm and weigh up to 200 kg (440 lb) (Pritchard et al., 1983). There are typically five pairs of lateral scutes (large scales) on the shell (Figure 3).

The species has a wide oceanic distribution; in the Atlantic Ocean individuals have been sighted as far north as Newfoundland (Squires, 1954) and northern Europe (Brongersma, 1972) and as far south as Argentina (Frazier, 1984). Nesting grounds are often located in temperate latitudes, with the greatest numbers of nesting females recorded along the Atlantic coast of Florida (USA) and Masirah Island (Oman). Nesting is also reported from various islands of the Greater and Lesser Antilles (although firm records are not always available), the Caribbean coasts of Mexico and Central America, and the Atlantic coast of South America from Venezuela to Brazil, as summarized by Dodd (1988). The greatest threat to the large breeding colonies in the USA is drowning in shrimp trawls (U. S. National Research Council, 1990).

It is generally conceded that loggerheads do not nest in St. Kitts/Nevis, but "an occasional nesting loggerhead" on the Southeast Peninsula was reported by Campbell Evelyn in d'Arbeau (1989). Individuals are sometimes seen offshore, but are rarely captured. Meylan (1983) reported that "the few individuals that have been seen were immature." One was reported to have been caught inside the reef at Dieppe Bay, and another off Key Ghaut (St. Kitts). The fishermen of Nevis periodically report "strange turtles" which may be loggerheads (A. Barrett, pers. comm., 1992). The species is considerably rarer than either the green turtle or hawksbill. The meat is presumably eaten when available. There are no population estimates.

Local common names for the species include "green turtle" and "green-back". The green turtle is recognized by a round, blunt beak with serrated cutting edges, one pair of enlarged scales between the eyes, and four pairs of lateral carapace scutes that do not overlap as they do on the hawksbill (cf. section 2.4) (Figure 3). The shell colour is light to dark brown, sometimes shaded with olive, with radiating wavy or mottled markings of darker colour or with large blotches of dark brown. It is generally devoid of barnacles. The plastron (=belly plate) is whitish or light yellow (Carr, 1952). Adults can attain weights of 230 kg (500 lb) (Pritchard et al., 1983) and generally measure 95-120 cm in straight carapace length (nuchal notch to posterior tip); a mean size of 100.2 cm (n=2107) is reported from the Caribbean nesting beach at Tortuguero, Costa Rica (Bjorndal and Carr, 1989). Audra Barrett measured seven carapaces from young green turtles killed on Nevis in 1986; they averaged 68 cm total curved carapace length (range 57-75 cm) (Wilkins and Barrett, 1987). Individuals of varying sizes are present in the waters surrounding St. Kitts/Nevis throughout the year.

It is quite certain that individual green turtles do not remain in local waters throughout their lives. Hatchlings emerge from their nests, scurry to the sea, orient offshore in a swimming frenzy that persists over a period of days, and ultimately enter an offshore convergence or weed line. It is well known, for example, that Sargassum seaweed rafts shelter hatchling green turtles and also harbour a diverse, specialized fauna, including many kinds of little fishes, crustaceans, worms, mollusks, tunicates, and coelenterates; these may provide food for the young turtles (Carr, 1987a). The turtles remain epipelagic (surface dwelling in the open sea) for an unknown period of time (perhaps 1-3 years) before taking up residence in continental shelf habitats.

Upon leaving the open sea existence that characterises their earliest years, green turtles become herbivores and remain so for the rest of their lives (Bjorndal, 1985). In the Caribbean Sea, green turtles feed primarily on the sea grass Thalassia testudinum (Bjorndal, 1982), commonly referred to as "turtle grass". Field studies indicate that individual turtles maintain feeding "scars" by returning to the same area of sea grass meadow to forage each day (Ogden et al., 1980, 1983). These scars, or grazing plots, are maintained by regular cropping for several months and the more digestible newer growth (higher in protein, lower in lignin) is preferred (Bjorndal, 1980). When the cropped grasses show signs of stress (blade thinning, increased inter-nodal distance), the turtle apparently abandons the scar and moves on to form another.

Green turtles travel extensively during the first decades of their lives and in the years preceding reproductive maturity take up temporary residence in many locations (Carr et al., 1978). They may travel thousands of kilometers in the Caribbean Sea before the urge to repro-duce impels them to migrate to mating and nesting grounds, the latter presumed to be their natal (=birth) beach. Caribbean green turtles reach sexual maturity at an estimated 18-36 years of age (reviewed by Frazer and Ladner, 1986). After reproducing, there is some evidence that turtles return to resident foraging grounds (=feeding areas). Therefore, the movements of adult turtles are likely to be less extensive than those of juveniles, since adults move seasonally between relatively fixed feeding and breeding areas.

The nesting season has yet to be precisely defined in St. Kitts/Nevis, but Wilkins and Meylan (1984) suggest that the bulk of the nesting occurs between May and October. Towle et al. (1986) estimated that nesting peaks in August-September, but indicated that a low level of nesting may occur year around. Neither nest density nor nesting frequency are known for St. Kitts/Nevis. On the basis of information available from other areas, 2-6 clutches of eggs are probably laid per female every 2-3 years. At the well-studied Tortuguero, Costa Rica, rookery, gravid (=egg-bearing) females deposit clutches averaging 112 eggs (sd=24.2, range 3-219, n= 2544) every two weeks (Bjorndal and Carr, 1989). Undisturbed eggs hatch after approximately two months of incubation, with incubation temperature determining the sex ratio of the hatch-lings (Morreale et al., 1982). In St. Kitts/Nevis, most eggs are believed to be harvested soon after they are laid (A. Barrett, pers. comm., 1989), despite the fact that eggs are protected between 1 June and 30 September (section 4.21).

Meylan (1983) described nesting as "sporadic" on St. Kitts and noted that "the most frequently mentioned nesting sites are on the tip of the southeastern peninsula -- at Majors Bay, Banana Bay, Cockleshell Bay, Mosquito Bay, and Sand Bank Bay . . . both [green turtles and hawksbills] also nest incidentally at Conaree and Belle Tete" (Figures 4 and 5). She also mentioned that green turtles feed, occasionally in groups, on the north coast at Willett's Bay and around the Southeast Peninsula. Green turtles are occasionally seen at Nag's Head (Robert Young, Vanier College, pers. comm., 1992) and are regularly observed at Grape Tree Bottom on the Caribbean coast of the Southeast Peninsula (Thomas Honebrink, pers. obs.). One of the largest green turtles ever hauled ashore was at Trinity Bay in the 1950's; a donkey cart was used to transport it into the village (Oliver Spencer, pers. comm., 1992). Waters offshore Old Road, Sandy Point, and Dieppe Bay towns were all favoured netting locations.

In a report prepared for the Western Atlantic Turtle Symposium, Wilkins and Meylan (1984) indicated nesting on St. Kitts at Sandy Point, Newton Ground, Dieppe Bay, Sandy Bay, Conaree, North Friar's Bay, Sand Bank Bay, Mosquito Bay, Major's Bay, Cockleshell Bay, Garvey's, Challengers, and Ballast Bay. Some of these beaches, including most of the Caribbean shoreline from Lynch Bay southeast to Hart's Bay (Lynch, Challenger's, Trinity, Garvey's, Hart's), were lost to Hurricanes Klaus (1984) and Hugo (1989). The sand has never returned. d'Arbeau (1989) surveyed the beaches of the Southeast Peninsula and attributed 22% of the nests to green turtles (26 June-31 July 1989); South Friar's and Sand Bank bays appeared to be the most important for this species (Table 1). Unfortunately, vehicle traffic and beach-cleaning equipment now discourage nesting on South Friar's beach (section 4.134).

In Nevis, Meylan (1983) noted historical records of green turtles nesting at Pinneys Beach (Figure 6), but expressed doubt that much nesting occurs today because of the high level of activity on this beach. She stated that foraging occurs "widely" around the island and indicated that green turtles were captured by nets off the southeast and southwest coasts and Newcastle. Several have borne tags originally put on at the nesting beach on Isla Aves, suggesting that Nevis may be one of the resident feeding grounds for that population. Robert Young observes green turtles feeding on "virtually every hike along the cliffs at White Hall Bay" on the south coast; large green turtles are also "predictable" at Almond Gardens (pers. comm., 1992).

On Nevis, nesting has been reported at Pinneys Bay, Red Cliff, and Indian Castle (Wilkins and Meylan 1984) and occasionally on the north coast on beaches in the Newcastle area. Nesting is rare to nonexistent at Pinneys due to increased levels of human activity and the beach at Indian Castle has been "destroyed" by sand mining (A. Barrett, pers. comm., 1991). At the present time, the most important green turtle beaches in Nevis are believed to be the pocket beaches in the Newcastle area, and White and Landing bays on the southeast coast (A. Barrett, pers. comm., 1992). Both juvenile and adult green turtles are harvested, especially during the open season (1 October-31 May); see section 3.3.

Leatherbacks, referred to in St. Kitts as "river turtles", are the largest of the sea turtles. Females nesting in the Caribbean typically weigh 300-500 kg (650-1100 lb). The largest leatherback on record is a male that stranded on the coast of Wales in 1988 and weighed 916 kg (2015 lb) (Morgan, 1989). The species is easily distinguished from other sea turtles because it lacks a bony shell, having instead a slightly flexible skin-covered carapace. The smooth, black skin is spotted with pale yellow or white. The tapered carapace is raised into seven prominent ridges and measures 130-165 cm in straight-line length (Figure 3). Powerful front flippers extend nearly the length of the body. Leatherbacks are found in the tropics, as well as in cold Canadian and European waters; they have the most extensive range of any reptile. Leatherbacks are seasonal visitors to St. Kitts/Nevis, arriving in the early months of the year to lay their eggs. It is likely that they leave north-temperate foraging and residence areas to come to St. Kitts/Nevis and then return to these latitudes after egg-laying is complete (cf. Eckert and Eckert, 1988).

The nesting season is said to occur between March and May (Meylan, 1983) but it is likely, based on the season in neighbouring islands, that some nesting continues through mid July. Turtle hunters interviewed by primary school children indicated that the season in St. Kitts spans February to June (see Appendix I). Data collected at the well-studied nesting ground at Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge (St. Croix, U. S. Virgin Islands) indicate that each female deposits an average of 6-7 clutches of eggs at 10-day intervals during the nesting season. Females generally return to nest every 2-3 years, but individuals occasionally nest in consecutive years and sometimes return after intervals longer than three years. Clutch size is typically 60-100 yolked eggs, averaging 85 (Basford et al., 1990); a variable number of small, yolkless eggs is also deposited. The eggs incubate in the sand at a depth of 60-70 cm. Hatchlings emerge from their nest, generally at dusk, 60-65 days after egg-laying.

In St. Kitts, most nesting occurs on the Atlantic coast and principally from Cayon River to Key Ghaut (there is also some nesting south of Key Ghaut, despite the offshore reef), but also on beaches as far south as Sand Bank Bay. Residents of the village of Keys ("Turtle Town") re-ported to Meylan (1983) that 8-12 leatherbacks nested annually between Cayon River and Key Ghaut. Meylan found seven tracks of varying ages on this beach on 19 May 1983. The following year, Wilkins and Meylan (1984) reported nesting at Conaree, North Friar's Bay, Sand Bank Bay, and Sandy Point, the latter on the Caribbean coast (Figures 4 and 5). Caribbean coast nesting appears to be considerably less frequent than Atlantic coast nesting, though Sandy Point is recognized as an important area. An early report by Caldwell and Rathjen (1969) indicated that two leatherbacks were taken in June 1968, including one taken on the beach at Belle Tete, the sandy promontory just north of Sandy Point Town. Five tracks were observed there by Anne Meylan during a field survey on 18 May 1983. Further south and several years later, two tracks were visible at South Friar's Bay on 2 April 1989 (Karen Eckert, pers. obs.).

In preparation for WATS II, Conaree Beach (Key Ghaut to Jack Tar Village) was monitored between 28 April-9 June 1987; 14 leatherback nests were recorded and most if not all eggs were poached. Two nesting females are known to have been killed during this time, one measured 51 inches (129.5 cm) curved carapace length (CCL) and the other 54 inches (137 cm) CCL; a third female was measured whilst nesting and measured 59 inches (150 cm) CCL (Wilkins and Barrett, 1987). Nesting on the channel beaches of Cockleshell and Mosquito has also been observed (Arendt, 1985 in Towle et al., 1986). d'Arbeau (1989) surveyed the beaches of the Southeast Peninsula and attributed 9% of the nests to leatherbacks (26 June-31 July 1989). She concluded that South Friar's Bay appeared to be the most important for this species (Table 1). In 1992, nesting was documented on North Friar's Bay (Kate Orchard, pers. comm.), Sand Bank Bay (Ricky Pereira, pers. comm.), and Cayon (Tom Honebrink, pers. obs.). On 3 May 1992, a nester wandered landward and became mired in Frigate Bay Salt Pond behind the Monkey Bar. She was dragged out by a rope tied to a truck (Rick Cordwell, pers. comm., 1992).

Nesting on Nevis is described as "infrequent" (Meylan 1983). In an early account by Arthur Anslyn (pers. comm. to Rathjen, 3 July 1966 in Caldwell and Rathjen, 1969), "two of the biggest turtles ever landed in Nevis were captured when they came up on the beach to lay their eggs. The first one was captured on the southeast coast and weighed an estimated 2000 pounds [N.B. this is likely to be an exaggeration]. The second, on the western coast, weighed 1036 pounds." These turtles are sure to have been leatherbacks. Wilkins and Meylan (1984) reported nesting at Red Cliff and Indian Castle beaches on the south shore and estimated that 3-5 nests per year were laid at Indian Castle (Figure 6). Today some nesting is reported from Cades Bay, Oualie Beach (Mosquito Bay) and Hurricane Hill, but the Indian Castle beach site has been "destroyed" by sand mining (A. Barrett, pers. comm., 1991).

A 25 April 1992 article in The Democrat reported that "a group of Nevis fishermen accidentally landed a huge leatherback turtle [at Oualie Beach], which had become entangled in their nets. As the leatherback is not considered good eating meat, it had no apparent commercial value to the fishermen, who left the turtle on its back on the beach whilst they went to sell their catch of fish, no doubt intending to return when they had more time to disentangle it from their valuable nets. The giant leatherback turtle, which is a heavily protected "endangered species" in almost every country of the world -- with the unfortunate exception of St. Kitts and Nevis -- was over six feet long. . . A small crowd of tourists and locals became alarmed at the turtle's distress and called the Fisheries Division and John Yearwood, President of the St. Kitts and Nevis Hotel Association, who acted immediately by offering to reimburse the Nevisian fishermen for any damage done to their nets in cutting the turtle free. . . After the net was fully cleared from its body without damage, the turtle swiftly set off for the water's edge and launched itself back into the sea to the admiring cheers of the crowd of well-wishers."

Little is known about the offshore behaviour of leatherback turtles in St. Kitts/Nevis, including whether or not they feed in local waters. Stomach contents of animals killed in other parts of the world indicate that the diet is mostly cnidarians (jellyfish, siphonophores) and tunicates (salps, pyrosomas) (Brongersma, 1969; Den Hartog and Van Nierop, 1984; Davenport and Balazs, 1991). Based on offshore studies of diving by adult females nesting on St. Croix, Eckert et al. (1989) proposed that the observed inter-nesting dive behaviour reflected nocturnal feeding on vertically migrating zooplankton, chiefly siphonophore and salp colonies. There are no records of juveniles in St. Kitts or Nevis, although injured juveniles have been found recently in Barbados (Horrocks, 1987) and Puerto Rico (Johnson, 1989). The paths taken by hatchlings leaving their natal beaches are not known. There are no data on growth rate or age at sexual maturity for wild leatherbacks.

Oil derived from leatherbacks killed in St. Kitts has traditionally been used for medicinal purposes, including home cold remedies, and this continues to the present day (see also section 3.3). Leatherbacks have at times been killed in Nevis, but historically there has been virtually no market for the meat or the oil.

The hawksbill is distinguished by a narrow, pointed beak with which it pries sponges and other soft-bodied organisms from the reef. The carapace is often posteriorly serrated and the four pairs of carapace scutes overlap, like shingles on a roof (Figure 3). There are two pair of pre-frontal scales between the eyes. Adults rarely exceed 80 kg (175 lb) and a carapace length of about 90 cm (straight-line, nuchal notch to posterior tip) (Pritchard et al., 1983; Witzell, 1983). Bright mottled colouration (brown, orange, gold) is common. This rare turtle is challenging to study. Hawksbills are migratory, high-density nesting is rare, and the relatively few tagging programmes have not been in place long enough to generate a useful number of tag re-turns (that is, a sufficiently large number of recaptures to illustrate post-nesting movement). Gravid females often nest on isolated beaches (including those flanked by exposed coral and rock) that are difficult for biologists to reach on a consistent basis.

Principal nesting beaches in the West Indies are not easily identified, but one of the best known is Pasture Bay Beach (Jumby Bay Resort) on Long Island, Antigua. Data collected at this site indicate that, over the course of the main nesting season (mid-June to mid-November), turtles make an average of five nests separated by intervals of 13-18 days (cf. Corliss et al., 1989). Average clutch size ranges from 120-160 eggs in the Western Atlantic (summarized by Witzell, 1983). The female often lays her eggs deep in the shelter of beach vegetation, such as the sea grape (Coccoloba uvifera). Little evidence of the visit exists aside from a faint asymmetrical crawl (flippers alternating) about 0.7 m wide leading to and from the ocean. Incubation periods average 60 to 75 days in the Western Atlantic (Witzell, 1983). As is true for other sea turtles, females will predictably return to the same beach or area to renest on intervals of 2-3 years, again based on data collected in Antigua (Jim Richardson, University of Georgia, pers. comm., 1992). Sand temperature plays a large role in determining hatchling sex -- warmer temperatures produce females, whereas cooler temperatures produce males.

Nesting may occur during all months of the year, especially May to October (Wilkins and Meylan, 1984), in St. Kitts/Nevis. Meylan (1983) described nesting as "sporadic" on St. Kitts and noted that "the most frequently mentioned nesting sites are on the tip of the southeastern peninsula -- at Major's Bay, Banana Bay, Cockleshell Bay, Mosquito Bay, and Sand Bank Bay . . . both [green turtles and hawksbills] also nest incidentally at Conaree and Belle Tete" (Figures 4, 5). In a report prepared for the first Western Atlantic Turtle Symposium, Wilkins and Meylan (1984) indicated nesting on St. Kitts at Sandy Point, Newton Ground, Dieppe Bay, Sandy Bay, Conaree, North Friar's Bay, Sand Bank Bay, Mosquito Bay, Major's Bay, Cockle-shell Bay, Garvey's, Challengers, and Ballast Bay. d'Arbeau (1989) surveyed the beaches of the Southeast Peninsula and attributed 68% of the nests to hawksbills; Major's Bay was clearly the most important site for this species, with South Friar's Bay in second place (Table 1). By 1992, severe erosion at Major's Bay had reduced the available nesting habitat there.

In Nevis, nesting was reported at Pinneys Bay, Red Cliff, and Indian Castle by Wilkins and Meylan (1984) (Figure 6), but is now rare to nonexistent at Pinneys due to increased levels of human activity and the beach at Indian Castle has been lost to sand mining. At the present time, the most important hawksbill beaches in Nevis are believed to be the pocket beaches in the Newcastle area, and White and Landing bays on the southeast coast (A. Barrett, pers. comm., 1992).

All size classes of hawksbills (23 cm straight-line carapace length and larger) are encountered in nearshore waters. Meylan (1983) reported sightings in shallow reefs around Dieppe Bay, Belle Tete, and Canada Estate in St. Kitts, and that in Nevis hawksbills were "captured in nets in the Black Bay [Red Cliff] area, although less frequently than green turtles." Wilkins and Meylan (1984) indicated that foraging had been observed at Sandy Point, Willett's/St. Paul's, Dieppe Bay, Keys/Conaree, South Frigate Bay, and Major's Bay; and off Pinneys Beach in Nevis. Les Windley (Sea Nevis Charter Boats, pers. comm., 1992) reports that juvenile hawks-bills (less than 2-ft (0.6 m) shell length) are sometimes seen during charter trips and snorkeling at Shitten Bay on the south coast of St. Kitts, and at Cades Bay and the Prinderella area of western Nevis; the turtles have never been seen feeding, but appear to seek shelter in the shallow reefs. Residents report regular sightings at Whitehouse Bay and Nag's Head on the Southeast Peninsula.

Hawksbills are "spongivores" and feed mainly on reef-associated sponges in the Caribbean region. Sponges contributed 95.3% of the total dry mass of all food items in digestive tract samples from 61 animals from seven Caribbean countries (Meylan, 1988). In the absence of comprehensive dietary data for local populations, there is little recourse but to assume that the distribution of hawksbill foraging is more or less coincident with the distribution of coral reefs in St. Kitts/Nevis. Hawksbills also occasionally eat whelks, cracking the shell and consuming the soft mollusk (Kenneth Samuel, Kenneth's Dive Center, pers. comm., 1992). Both juveniles and adults are harvested in St. Kitts and Nevis, especially during the open season (1 October-31 May); see section 3.3.

There are no records of Kemp's ridleys in St. Kitts or Nevis. The diminutive Kemp's ridley is gray in colour as an immature and primarily olive green as an adult (Pritchard et al., 1983). The carapace is round, often as wide as it is long, and carapace scutes do not overlap one another (cf. hawksbill turtle, section 2.4). Adults weigh 27-41 kg (60-90 lb) (Ross et al., 1989). The species is carnivorous and eats mostly crabs, but also preys upon other crustaceans, shellfish, jellyfish, sea urchins, starfish, and fish. With the exception of a single recapture from Caribbean Nicaragua of a "head-started" individual (Manzella et al., 1991), which may have displayed altered behaviour due to having been held captive during its first year (Woody, 1991), Kemp's ridleys are confined to the Gulf of Mexico and temperate northern Atlantic. Unarguably the most endangered sea turtle in the world, the total adult population is thought to number no more than 900 females and an unknown number of males (Ross et al., 1989). Nesting occurs almost exclusively in the state of Tamaulipas, Mexico.

There are no records of olive ridleys foraging or nesting in St. Kitts or Nevis, nor would the species be expected to occur. Olive ridleys are similar in appearance to Kemp's ridleys (section 2.5), having a nearly round carapace (width about 90% of the length) and an adult colour of olive green or brown dorsally and yellowish white ventrally. The turtle rarely exceeds 100 lb (45 kg) (Pritchard et al., 1983). Each front flipper bears a single claw, the horny beak may be finely serrated, and carapace scutes do not overlap one another. The lateral scutes (those to either side of the median on the shell) are divided into 5-9 pairs, considerably more than other sea turtles which typically have 4-5 pairs. In the western Atlantic, olive ridleys have been reported from Brazil northward to Venezuela (Pritchard, 1969) but significant levels of nesting appear to occur only in Suriname, primarily at Eilanti Beach (Schulz, 1975). Olive ridleys nesting in Suriname have declined considerably in recent years from about 3,000 nests per year in the late 1960's to fewer than 500 nests per year today (Fretey, 1990). Incidental catch and drowning in shrimp trawls has been implicated in their demise. Diffuse nesting occurs in northwestern Guyana and in French Guiana (Reichart, 1989).

The environmental resources of St. Kitts/Nevis are unique and irreplaceable. It is crucially important to pursue national economic development in an orderly manner to promote and maintain a competitive business climate and to conserve these environmental amenities for the enjoyment and economic utilization of future generations. St. Kitts/Nevis is a very small country. The reality of scale limits development options to some extent, and there is not the margin for error that larger countries enjoy. Holistic and thoughtful development is essential. There are already examples of habitat destruction and perhaps the most obvious, at least in terms of sea turtles, is beach degradation. Problems include the loss of some beaches to sand mining and the abuse of others by vehicle traffic, waste disposal, commercial development, and armouring (section 4.13). Residents cite once active nesting beaches, such as Pinneys on Nevis, that are now rarely visited by turtles because of human activity. Further, there is concern that large-scale development of the Southeast Peninsula of St. Kitts, encouraged by the recent completion of a paved road extending the length of the once wild peninsula, will ultimately destroy many of the nation's remaining sea turtle nesting beaches. Once the relatively few sandy beaches are over-commercialized, they cannot be recaptured for the quiet pleasure of residents, tourists, or wildlife. This is a central point, for without a commitment by Government to exercise steward-ship over the coastal zone, there can be little enthusiasm among turtle hunters to do their part in safeguarding the biodiversity of this beautiful nation.

It is equally important to recognize existing threats to the marine environment, since sea turtles utilise the coastal zone for feeding, resting, and migrating. Domestic pollution, especially around urban areas, poses a threat because not all the raw sewage generated is collected via a sewer system for subsequent treatment. Much of this waste disappears directly into the sea. In addition, waste products from a variety of industries in St. Kitts, including sugar cane and molasses production, distillery, abattoir, brewery and power plants, "all enter the coastal environment and contribute to stressful conditions experienced by marine ecosystems" (CCA, 1991). Local agriculture, increasingly dependent on agrochemicals, also contributes to contaminated runoff. Ships discharge sewage and other refuse at sea. Fisheries and marine tourism (SCUBA diving) may have negative effects on the marine environment, especially when considered cumulatively. In particular, coral reef destruction is an increasingly worrisome problem due to anchoring, lost or discarded fishing gear (lost fish pots, tangled fishing line, torn nets), garbage, and the activities of recreational divers, the latter involving the touching and trampling of corals. Sea grasses are also at risk from anchoring and sedimentation. It is generally conceded that sea grasses around Nevis, especially around Charlestown, are "slowly disappearing" (Robinson, 1991).

Probably the most prominent examples of habitat degradation around the two islands are the main harbours at Charlestown and Basseterre. Water quality is poor in these areas, largely due to general shipping-related pollution and run-off from the streets of the capital cities. In the Charlestown Harbour, the sea grasses are mostly dead and the corals are gone. Physical damage to coral reef habitat in the Basseterre Harbour and Brimstone Hill Shallows has been extensive, primarily due to anchoring. There are anchor scars 150-200 m across in Basseterre Harbour where huge coral formations once flourished (K. Samuel, pers. comm., 1992). Furthermore, the beach at Basseterre used to be some 50-70 m wide and host significant numbers of nesting turtles. Construction of the Deep Water Port and the pier there starved the Basseterre beach over a period of about ten years. Today the beach is only 1-2 m wide; indeed, the coastal road is often undercut by waves breaking near it. Big and Little Potato bays just south of the Deep Water Port also used to have sea turtles nesting, but the beaches have been reduced to rubble and the turtles are gone. Similarly, construction of the solid Charlestown pier has precipitated the loss of sandy beaches from the pier north to Pinneys Beach Hotel in Nevis. Fewer than ten years ago people could swim off sandy beaches between the pier and Pinneys Beach Hotel. This is no longer true because the sand is diverted out to sea or deposited in Gallows Bay. What was once sandy shore is now rocky.

Harbour areas are zoned for commercial activities, and as such their degradation is virtually assured. More troublesome is increasing activity in as yet unspoiled areas, such as the Southeast Peninsula and the Narrows. Sea grass is abundant around the Southeast Peninsula, particularly in the channel (Narrows) bays. For example, Mosquito Bay is a high use area because of water sports promoted there and there is evidence (e.g., aerial photographs) of a thinning in the bay's grass beds. Dredging at Cockleshell Bay has already damaged the seabed and further manipulation is planned (section 4.147). Simmonds (1991a) reported that of four sites examined for the Coastal Marine Ecosystem Monitoring Project (Sand Bank Bay, North Frigate Bay, Old Road Bay, Sandy Point), varying degrees of overall reef health were observed. Sand Bank Bay and North Frigate Bay were described as "poor"; substantial amounts of broken and damaged corals (mostly elkhorn, Acropora sp.) were observed, as well as excessive algal growth. Old Road was found to be in "good" condition and Sandy Point in "fair" condition. The latter two sites had less algae and a greater diversity of invertebrates and fishes. It is widely held among local divers that St. Kitts' Atlantic reefs are dying. The mortality appears to be patchy and particularly severe offshore from Jack Tar Village and north toward Half Moon Bay; the cause is not known (Joseph Simmonds, Fisheries Officer, pers. comm., 1992).

The extent to which disease and predation negatively influence the survival prospects of sea turtles in St. Kitts/Nevis has not been quantified, but there is no reason to believe that either factor is out of balance or poses a serious threat. Green turtle fibropapilloma disease has been observed by SCUBA dive operator Kenneth Samuel, but only "a couple times and not recently". The disease is a herpesvirus-like infection which has been reported elsewhere in the region (see Jacobson, 1990) and is extensively documented in Florida (Ehrhart, 1991). Symptoms include external tumors of varying sizes. The tumors can result in blindness and debilitation; in several cases, internal tumors have been seen in the lungs, intestinal surface, and kidneys (Jacobson, 1990). The cause of this potentially fatal disease is not known. If turtles with visible tumors are captured they should be released. Under no circumstances should diseased turtles be eaten.

Major predators on sea turtle eggs and hatchlings include both indigenous (ants, crabs, birds) and exotic (dogs, mongooses, pigs) species. Wilkins and Meylan (1984) mentioned dogs and mongooses as predators of hatchlings. Wild pigs foraging at the dump near Conaree, St. Kitts, occasionally roam the beach and may disturb turtle eggs (pigs are significant egg predators elsewhere in the Wider Caribbean region). d'Arbeau (1989) estimated hatchling loss to crabs, birds, and mammals (and desiccation in one case) on seven Southeast Peninsula beaches from 23 June to 31 July 1989 to be 21.28% (Table 2). The exotic species have had a particularly devastating effect on the native fauna; ground birds are now scarce, sea turtles are endangered, and the mountain chicken, agouti, and iguana are all extinct (CCA, 1991). There is no evidence that monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) resident on the Southeast Peninsula pose any threat to sea turtles or their eggs and hatchlings (R. Young, pers. comm., 1989).

A wide variety of fishes consume hatchlings at sea. As the turtles grow, their vulnerability to predation is reduced. Only the larger sharks and killer whales (Orca orcinus) can successfully challenge a fully armoured turtle. In January 1992, a 3 m tiger shark was landed at Oualie Beach Resort, Nevis, and found to have ingested a juvenile hawksbill about 30 cm in carapace length (Young, 1992). d'Arbeau (1989) described a shark attack on an adult green turtle in shallow waters off the Southeast Peninsula in June 1989; "wave action brought the injured female close to shore where she was ... slaughtered by the road construction crew." Fishermen and divers occasionally see turtles with missing or partially missing flippers, a condition which is likely to be attributable to shark encounter. Some years ago, leatherback remains were found in the stomachs of three killer whales captured off St. Vincent (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1969).

Historical overview: Preliminary excavations of 21 early settlements in Nevis have revealed occasional sea turtle bones in sites dating from 200 BC to 1500 AD (Samuel Wilson, University of Texas, pers. comm., 1991), but there are no data to indicate the extent to which turtles were harvested during prehistoric eras. Similarly, very little information can be found relating to their catch or consumption during the centuries of European occupation. General anecdotal details were reported in the letters of William Smith: "There are seven or eight kinds of Turtle alias Tortoise, though but one of them eatable, which is called Green Turtle, because its fat is of a green colour, and that not of the sort, whose shell serves for Snuff-Boxes. They are so common that they need no description; and the manner of catching them at Nevis, is as follows. When a Person sees any of their Tracks in the Sea Sands, he next Night sits up to watch, and turn them upon their Backs, and then they are quite helpless. Their Blood is cold; and upon opening one of them, I have seen, at least, two hundred eggs that are exactly round, (like a School-boy's Marble) taken out of it, about forty of which, were enclosed in whitish tough Skins, with a water-coloured, or jellyish substance round the yolk, and were ready to be laid at one time." (Smith, 1745).

One thing is undeniable, and that is that sea turtles have been harvested for centuries in what is now the nation of St. Kitts and Nevis. It is difficult to know precisely when local turtle populations began their decline, but the trend is consistent with that reported elsewhere in the Caribbean. During an October 1992 interview, Charles Solas (about 65 years old) of Keys village recalled cutting cane as a young man and sometimes walking to Conaree Beach to sleep at night. There were as many as six (sometimes more) leatherbacks nesting per night on the beach in those days, although he and the other hunters rarely killed more than one (each) per night because that was all they could handle (transport, butcher, distribute). A turtle could be expected each time "a star pitched". He remembers killing a maximum of three in a single night. Since it was not possible to transport a turtle off the beach at night, he would either decapitate her or cut off her nose with his cutlass, believing that if she could not smell the water, she would not return to the sea. Hunters generally worked alone, sometimes with a dog. Family and friends were assembled at dawn to assist in transport and butchering. Meat and oil were the primary products. Eggs were very popular and "plenty people" used to gather them on the beaches during the nesting season. Eggs were located by probing with a steel rod.

According to Solas, who concedes that very few turtles come to the beaches anymore, the females have simply gone somewhere else, "gone by the current". Today a hunter will wait many nights before his effort is rewarded. The scenario is similar for green and hawksbill turtles. Another native Kittitian, diver Kenneth Samuel, remembers sea turtles brought in in abundance during the 1940's and 1950's. They were stockpiled at fishermen's residences, such as at the Ramsey house and others on the waterfront in Basseterre, where they were stowed under the building on their backs until butchering. Buyers came to the fishermen's houses and ordered the number of turtles desired. Turtles not sold after 7-10 days were close to death, having had no access to food or water, and were killed for distribution to friends and villagers who could not otherwise afford the luxury of meat at one shilling (25 cents) per pound, considerably more ex-pensive than fish. A popular method of preparation was to soak the meat in a pork barrel with spices and the juice from imported pickles, then cure it in the hot sun. Large sea turtle shells were used as toy boats for children. By the 1970's it was clear to anyone paying attention that turtles were smaller, and they were getting rare (K. Samuel, pers. comm., 1992).

The beaches of the Southeast Peninsula have always been particularly good nesting habitat. Campbell Evelyn (former Chairman, Conservation Commission) and Oliver Spencer (Old Road Fisherman's Cooperative) recall "lots" of nesting on these beaches, especially on the Caribbean and terminus (Narrows) shorelines. In 1968-1970, it was possible to walk in the sea grass along the shoreline of Cockleshell Bay and collect huge conchs in knee-deep water. There were turtle nests "everywhere". Mosquito Beach, too, was "famous for turtles", both hawksbill and green. Diving in Mosquito Bay in the 1970's, Spencer remembers multiple turtle nets set offshore. In addition to frequent nesting on the terminus beaches of Mosquito, Cockleshell, and Banana Bays (Figure 5), Evelyn estimates that there were commonly as many as 35 (and up to 75) green turtle nests on South Friar's Bay at any one time. This is particularly telling because green turtles are today the rarest of all the sea turtles that nest in St. Kitts and Nevis. Evelyn describes the Peninsula beaches today as "desolate". Since the peninsula lacked a road until ver-y recently, the majority of sea turtles in recent decades were taken by netting. Nevertheless, it is also true that gravid females and eggs were taken from the nesting beaches by fishermen traveling to the peninsula by boat.

Contemporary data: Meylan (1983) reported that sea turtle populations in St. Kitts were considered by most residents to be declining. The following text is taken from her account. Net fishermen complained about a reduction in annual catch. Catch rates for fishermen at the time of her writing were on the order of 10-20 per year. One turtle fisherman at Dieppe Bay used to catch 50 turtles per year in the early 1960's; in 1979, he caught a total of four green turtles and hawksbills, and one leatherback. He implied that he had exerted equal effort during both periods, although this is a difficult point to establish. About ten people on the island were actively setting turtle nests at the time of Meylan's writing. None were exclusively dependent on this for their livelihood, but the meat and income were undoubtedly an important contribution to their subsistence. Most turtles caught were immature greens. The meat (all species, with leatherback least preferred) was sold in many villages and occasionally in the public market in Basseterre, as well as to hotels. The price in 1980 was US$ 0.80/kg; it had increased to US$ 1.60/kg by 1983 [N.B. US$ 1.00 = EC$ 2.70 in October 1992]. Turtle eggs were also eaten, but rarely sold. Leatherback oil was widely used medicinally.

Meylan (1983) reported that there was "limited information" on changes in population levels of marine turtles in Nevis. A tortoiseshell buyer in Charlestown reported a decrease in the amount of tortoiseshell he was able to purchase from fishermen on the island -- from 136 kg/yr in 1975 to 91 kg/yr in 1980. Inasmuch as hunting pressure increased during this period, a decline in the hawksbill population may have occurred. The status of green turtles around Nevis was reported as "unknown" by Meylan (1983). She indicated that at least a dozen people, most of whom lived in Hanley's Road, Bath Village, and Newcastle, fished for turtles with tangle nets in order to supplement their incomes and diets; none depended solely on turtle fishing for their livelihood. While there was considerable fluctuation from year to year, the average annual catch reported by Nevis fishermen was 5-15 turtles, mostly green turtles. When abundant, green turtles were shipped live on the ferry or the "lighters" to the public market at Basseterre, St. Kitts. As in St. Kitts, but apparently to a much lesser extent, oil derived from the leatherback was used in Nevis as a home remedy for colds and congestion. On both islands, sea turtles were harvested without any knowledge on the part of the hunters as to the size of the populations at large, or the number of individuals that could be sustainably taken each year.

In the National Report for St. Kitts/Nevis prepared for the 1983 Western Atlantic Turtle Symposium (WATS I), Wilkins and Meylan (1984) described five landing sites for turtle products -- Basseterre (caught with "set nets from Nevis"), Sandy Point ("set nets, spear, nesting"), Indian Castle ("set nets, spear"), St. Paul's ("set nets, spear"), and Dieppe Bay ("set nets, spear"). Typical turtle nets are gill nets 50-75 feet long and 10 feet deep, with a mesh size of 8-10 inches (Barrett, 1987). In a later report, Wilkins and Barrett (1987) conceded that turtles were "relatively low in abundance" as compared to 1983 when the first survey had been conducted. Nests made on Conaree Beach in 1987 were found poached "within a day or two". Prior to and during the Conaree Beach survey, two leatherbacks were legally taken there. In all, more than 50 turtles (hawksbills, green turtles, loggerheads, leatherbacks) were caught in St. Kitts during the 1986-1987 open season. The meat was consumed locally. Hawksbill shells were either sold to a buyer from neighbouring islands, or sold to a local buyer who, in turn, sold them to an outside buyer. In Nevis, about 20 fishermen "fully engaged in turtle fishing" operated some 36 nets in inshore areas, along the peninsula of St. Kitts, and near beaches "known to be frequented by turtles". Total catch in Nevis for the October 1986-May 1987 open season was estimated to be 110 turtles, mainly hawksbill and green turtles (average: 65 lb). Hawksbills were caught most frequently; leatherbacks were occasionally caught and released because the meat was not favoured. Hawksbill and green turtle meat was sold mostly to hotels. The shells were used for decoration and jewelry; some fishermen "swinged" (charred and broke) them for use as fish trap bait.

By the 1987-1988 season, only eight fishermen were directly engaged in turtle fishing in Nevis and they operated 10 turtle nets; the catch of 47 turtles, the majority being female hawks-bills, was considered relatively low (Barrett, 1988). Based largely on interviews with fishermen and Fisheries Officers, d'Arbeau (1989) reported that green turtles and hawksbills were caught by spearing on the coral reefs, particularly those offshore the Southeast Peninsula. Turtle nets were also set (mostly by Nevis fishermen) in the two mile channel separating St. Kitts and Nevis. According to Assistant Fisheries Officer Audra Barrett (pers. comm. in d'Arbeau, 1989), Nevis recorded an annual turtle catch of 110-120 greens and hawksbills in 1988 and an estimated 1989 catch of 60-70; most of the turtles were caught off the Southeast Peninsula. "Turtle watches" are also carried out by fishermen who await the return of a nesting female 13-15 days after laying. Once laying has been accomplished, the eggs are removed and the turtle turned and slaughtered. Eggs are either consumed locally (often rolled in flour and seasoning and deep-fried) or sold to certain hotels on the island at approximately EC$ 6.00 per dozen (Kenyon Griffin, pers. comm. in d'Arbeau, 1989). Traditionally the leatherback has not been captured primarily for meat, but rather for oil. The eggs of all three species are considered a delicacy and also regarded as having aphrodisiac properties. Eggs are collected when a track reveals the presence of a nest, which is usually located by probing. Anslyn (1982) reported to the 1982 CCA Annual Meeting that "turtle eggs, considered a delicacy by some, are still being taken from nests during the closed season."

There are no turtle harvest data for 1989 or 1990 in Nevis. At least three green turtles were killed on Gallows Bay (probably in May 1990), as evidenced by the shells left behind. During the 1 October 1990-31 May 1991 open season, about 75 turtles (30 to 150-200 lb each) were landed in Nevis. These were generally net-caught and kept alive for 2-3 days to "advertise" their availability; when a sufficient number of buyers (residents, hotel owners) had been identified, the turtles were butchered for meat and, in males, the penis. Closed season landings included large green turtles slaughtered at Pinneys Beach on each of three successive Saturdays in July 1990 and a leatherback killed in the Cotton Ground area in June 1991. Net fishing is concentrated in shallow coastal waters, generally in areas of sea grass. One day in early October 1992, 12 nets were set between Oualie Beach and Dogwood Point. Some Newcastle Fishermen also set their nets in waters adjoining nesting beaches on the Southeast Peninsula, St. Kitts. One day in early 1992, six nets were set in Mosquito Bay (R. Pereira, pers. comm.). Turtles at sea have noticeably declined over the last 12 years, according to local divers. A "few" were sure to be seen on every dive until about four years ago; now sightings are irregular at best. Large sea turtles are almost never encountered (Ellis Chaderton, SCUBA Safaris, pers. comm., 1992).

In St. Kitts, Fisheries personnel estimate that fewer than 50 turtles are landed per annum, but there is some evidence to suggest that the number may exceed 100 turtles. There are probably fewer than five active turtle net-fishermen, but there is a rapidly growing number of spearfishermen. Most spearfishermen report taking 1-3 turtles each year. Charles Henry and his four friends spearfish daily from Cayon to Saddlers and estimate they each catch an average of one turtle per month, or about 60 turtles/yr between them. Both hawksbills and green turtles are shot, but mainly hawksbills. Meat sells for EC$ 3 on the beach and a whole shell for EC$ 50; total profit is about EC$ 200 per turtle (C. Henry pers. comm. to Tim Sands, Fisheries Division, 1992). Netting is largely a thing of the past, except on the Southeast Peninsula. Traditional sites included Old Road, Sandy Point, and Dieppe Bay, but few nets have been seen drying in recent years. Most turtles are butchered as soon as they are landed, especially in the turtle villages where demand is still relatively high. In some cases, turtles may be kept 2-3 days while residents wait for hot water to become available. The plastron must be soaked in hot water to remove the horny outer layers before it can be cut into strips and stewed. Eggs are harvested year-around and, according to Fisheries Officers, probably in large numbers. Eggs are not available in public markets, but are consumed by the collector or distributed informally (or sold) amongst friends and neighbours.

The hunting of nesting leatherbacks (river turtles) continues in Keys, Cayon, and Sandy Point Town in St. Kitts. Hunters' fires were a common sight on Conaree/Canada beach during the summer nights of the early 1980's (C. Evelyn, pers. comm., 1992). Today there are fewer hunters and fewer turtles. In addition to Charles Solas in Keys, there are two men in Cayon who regularly seek leatherbacks; an estimated three females are killed each year (C. Solas, pers. comm., 1992). The number of hunters in the vicinity of Sandy Point Town is not known, but an elderly hunter, Mr. Richardson, reported seven leatherbacks killed there in 1992. Meat sells for about EC$ 2/lb, as compared to EC$ 4-5 for green turtle or hawksbill meat. In addition to meat, an estimated 20-30 bottles or two kerosene tins of oil are rendered per leatherback. Oil sells for EC$ 11-12/bottle, compared to EC$ 5-6/bottle "a few years ago" (C. Solas, pers. comm., 1992). Solas killed one leatherback on Conaree Beach in 1992, but, for the price of EC$ 60 (a portion of the profit from the meat, sold at EC$ 1.50/lb in Keys) and 12 bottles of oil, he gave it to a younger man to butcher and sell. The number of turtles nesting near the villages of Keys and Cayon in 1992 is not known, but, based on data from residents who informally counted fewer than 10 crawls on the beach, the number of turtles probably did not exceed three (each turtle nests an average of six times per season; see section 2.3).

In the areas of the Cayon River and Hermitage Bay, "no turtle makes it back to the water" (Telca Wallace, pers. comm., 1992). The meat is eaten stewed or salted and dried; oil is taken for congestion, general good health, and reputed aphrodisiac qualities; and eggs are relished. Early one morning in April 1992, two nesting crawls were seen at Cunningham Beach near Cayon. Both nests had been raided and one female had been decapitated the night before. The hunters were present on the beach, awaiting transportation to bring the turtle to the village where the animal would be boiled for oil (Thomas and Diana Honebrink, pers. obs.). The men indicated that they knew April was the season for egg-laying and they had been awaiting the turtle's arrival. They also knew that the season was open and that the activity was legal. The eggs were subsequently sold in Keys. In the next six weeks, the Honebrinks observed an additional 4-7 nests on this beach. Evidence of vehicle traffic on the beach and probing sticks in the vicinity of these nests suggested that hunters had sought (perhaps successfully) to collect the eggs. Eggs sell for EC$ 6-8 per dozen.

Cuisine: Sea turtle meat has long been included at feasts and dinners. This is clearly indicated in Pares' (1950) comprehensive account of the history of the Pinney family's sugar plantation business in Nevis from 1685 to 1850. He wrote, "When John Pinney arrived in the West Indies at the end of 1764 people lived there very much as they had done in his great-great-uncle's time. [T]he picturesque embellishments of life which charmed ... transient visitors [included] the hedges of pomegranate and cape-jasmine, of lime and logwood [and] the round of feasts, with turtle on the table at every meal and thirty-two different kinds of fruit at dessert; ..." Pares (1950) noted that William Coker, born on Nevis and for a time manager of absentee-owner John Frederick Pinney's plantation, "was long quite unable to get a turtle to send home to John Frederick Pinney because they were all bought up by the resident planters." Much later, a guidebook to Nevis would confirm, "Turtle is made into soup or stewed; best of all is Turtle Parmesan" (Gordon, 1985). Turtle stew is also included in a recent compilation of Caribbean recipes by the St. Kitts Association of Home Economists (SKAHE, 1991).

In response to a letter from the NHCS (Lead Organization for WIDECAST in Nevis; see section 4.41), all major restaurants in Nevis, including Golden Rock and Nisbett Plantation, have stopped selling sea turtle meat in deference to the species' endangered status. Similarly, turtle is no longer offered at Miss June's Cuisine because "so many people have asked that I discontinue it" (June Mastier, owner and chef, pers. comm., 1992). Until recently, Mastier had purchased turtle meat at EC$ 4/lb; buffet meals including turtle started at EC$ 40. Some owners of sea-side restaurants/bars interviewed during development of this Recovery Action Plan re-ported purchasing live sea turtles (in one case, two juvenile hawksbills for EC$ 400) and releasing them; none could remember being offered eggs. A very large green turtle was offered to Ian Mintrim (pers. comm., 1992) early in 1992 for EC$ 1500. One local eatery, Cla-Cha-Del, was still offering turtle in season at the time of writing (stew or steak: EC$ 30 a la carte, $50 full course). There are still a few restaurants in St. Kitts where turtle can be eaten, such as Chef's where the price of a meal in 1992 was EC$ 20. Other Kittitian restaurants (e.g., Balla-hoo, Fairview Inn) have discontinued their sea turtle meals.

Incidental catch: Incidental or accidental catch, where sea turtles are drowned in active or abandoned fishing gear deployed for other target species, does not seem to be a serious problem in St. Kitts and Nevis. Nonetheless, drownings and near drownings do occasionally occur. For example, an adult female green turtle (42 inches curved carapace length; 230 lb) was found dead in a net set for sharks in July 1987 at Helden-St. Paul's, St. Kitts (Wilkins and Barrett, 1987). This turtle had been tagged with number #P1803 and a return address of Gainesville, Florida; the tag number was forwarded to Gainesville by Fisheries personnel. In 1990, a large green turtle entangled in a "Japanese net" (heavy green fiber netting) was found struggling just north of Cades Bay, Nevis. The turtle was near death when retrieved and the fishermen butchered it for meat (A. Barrett, pers. comm., 1992). There is no trawling in domestic waters. Longlining is just beginning. The industry uses bottom-set hooks. The incidental catch of sea turtles has not been reported (see also section 4.27).

Tortoiseshell and trade: Meylan (1983) noted that in May 1983, hawksbill shell (tortoiseshell) sold for US$ 24/kg in St. Kitts. At that time some of the shell was worked locally, but most was exported raw. There were few turtle products for sale as souvenirs, "presumably because of the low level of tourism." Similarly, there was "limited marketing" of tortoiseshell and polished turtle shells in local tourist shops in Nevis at the time of Meylan's (1983) writing. The ban on importation of sea turtle products into the U. S. is said to have "sharply curtailed this trade". The retail situation is similar today; that is, tortoiseshell jewelry is rarely offered for sale. In June 1992, an informal survey of boutiques in Basseterre revealed that selected small items were offered for sale in the Pelican Mall and four bracelets (US$ 12 ea) and five pairs of earrings (US$ 12 ea) were on sale at Gold Plus. Also in mid-June, a clerk at Objects of Art indicated that the store usually carries turtle shell but didn't have any in stock at that time. She confirmed that the turtles were locally caught and artisans sold the finished items directly to the shops. The Shoreline Plaza sells tortoiseshell earrings (EC$ 35/pr). No tortoiseshell could be found for sale in Nevis in 1992.

Above and beyond domestic harvest is the ongoing international commerce in hawksbill shell plates (tortoiseshell, or 'bekko'), a phenomenon widely touted as the single most significant factor endangering hawksbill populations around the world. To meet the demands of at least four separate native industries, Japan has conducted the world's largest international trade in sea turtles and sea turtle products, focusing not only on the hawksbill, but on green turtles and olive ridleys as well (Milliken and Tokunaga, 1987). Japanese imports of raw tortoiseshell between 1970 and 1989 totalled 713,850 kg, representing more than 670,000 turtles; more than half the imports originated from the Caribbean and Latin America (Milliken and Tokunaga, 1987, updated by Greenpeace to 1989). Between 1970-1987, a total of 675,247 kg of stuffed hawksbills representing an additional 587,000-plus turtles was imported (Greenpeace, 1989). Milliken and Tokunaga (1987) note that in order to maintain these levels of importation, the annual slaughter of at least 28,000 hawksbills is required.

Between 1970 and June 1989, Japan imported 368,318 kg of tortoiseshell from the Wider Caribbean alone, the equivalent of more than a quarter million turtles; in 1988, Japan imported from the Wider Caribbean the tortoiseshell from nearly 12,000 adult hawksbills (Canin, 1989). St. Kitts/Nevis has allegedly participated in this trade in recent years. Japanese import statistics show that 136 kg of tortoiseshell was received from St. Kitts/Nevis in 1990 (Canin, 1991). The average yield per hawksbill is 1.34 kg in the Caribbean (Milliken and Tokunaga, 1987); thus the export that year represented a minimum of 100 turtles. Fisheries Division personnel have no knowledge of any such trade and consider it impossible that these turtles were exported from St. Kitts/Nevis. Since it is highly unlikely that the local population of hawksbills could supply this amount of shell, the most plausible explanation is that St. Kitts/Nevis, a non-party to CITES [Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora], was named as the port of export even though the shell did not actually originate here. This practice is not uncommon among unscrupulous dealers trying to evade CITES restrictions (Canin, 1991).

Over the past decade, a modest level of export of turtle products has taken place between St. Kitts/Nevis and neighbouring islands. Meylan (1983) described an "active market" in Nevis. In 1980, a buyer in Charlestown was purchasing shell from fishermen around the island for US$ 16/kg and reselling it to a dealer from St. Lucia. The price in 1983 ranged from US$ 16-24. Other buyers from Puerto Rico, Dominica, and Guadeloupe periodically canvassed the fishermen at their homes for raw shell material. Wilkins and Barrett (1987) also noted the "occasional sale" of shells to buyers from neighbouring islands. Barrett (1988) reported, "Turtles are slaughtered and sold by fishermen themselves to the public, hoteliers, and restaurants on the island. A total of 1000 pounds [of meat was] exported

	Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plan for St. Kitts and Nevis
	CEP Technical Report No. 17 1992	All CEP Technical Reports