The major sources of coastal and marine pollution originating from
the land vary from country to country. The nature and intensity of
development activities, the size of the human population, the state
and type of industry and agriculture are but a few of the factors
contributing to each country’s unique pollution problems. Pollution
is discharged either directly into to the sea, or enters the coastal
waters through rivers and by atmospheric deposition.
In order to mitigate and control the impact of pollution on coastal
and marine resources, it is essential that the type and load of pollutants
be identified. This involves determination of the sources and their
location, and the volume and concentration of the pollutants. Point
sources of pollution are sources that can be identified to one location,
such as industrial and sewage treatment plants. Point sources, though
easy to identify, account only for a fraction of the land-based sources
of pollution affecting coastal and marine environments. Non-point
sources are harder to identify, and include urban storm water run-off
and overflow discharges, as well as runoff from forest and agriculture.
Pollution sources can be located relatively far away from coastal
areas and still have an impact. Pollutants from sources and activities
within a drainage area can be carried to the coast by rivers. Pollution
from distant sources can also enter into the marine environment through
atmospheric deposition.
Based on current information, the land based pollutants constituting
the greatest threat to coastal and marine ecosystems and to public
health in the Wider Caribbean Region are sewage, oil hydrocarbons,
sediments, nutrients, pesticides, litter and marine debris, and toxic
wastes.
Sewage is one of the most significant pollutants affecting the coastal
environments of the Wider Caribbean Region, especially in the developing
nations. In 1993, Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) indicated
that only 10% of the sewage generated in the Central American and
Caribbean Island countries were properly treated. A more recent survey
conducted in eleven CARICOM countries by PAHO reported that the percentage
of population served by sewage systems varied from 2 to 16%. The inadequate
number of sewage treatment plants in operation, combined with poor
operating conditions of available treatment plants, and the disposal
practices of discharging mostly untreated wastewater are likely to
have an adverse effect on the quality of coastal waters. The population
of coastal dwellers in most of the countries in the region continues
to grow steadily, thus increasing the amounts of poorly treated or
untreated sewage waste waters being discharged into the coastal waters.
The discharge of sewage can cause public health problems either from
contact with polluted waters or from consumption of contaminated fish
or shellfish. The discharge of untreated sewage effluents also produces
long-term adverse impacts on the ecology of critical coastal ecosystems
in localized areas due to the contribution of nutrients and other
pollutants. Pollution due to inadequate sewage disposal causes nutrient
enrichment around population centers, and high nutrient levels and
even eutrophication near treatment facilities and sewage outfalls.
Increased nutrient concentrations promote increased algal and bacterial
growth, degradation of seagrass and coral reef ecosystems, decreased
fisheries production, along with risks to human health.
The past decade has also witnessed an increasing growth in the region’s
tourism, an industry dependent on the quality of the natural environment.
Estimates provided by Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO) indicate
that the total stayover tourist arrival to the Caribbean region is
close to 12 million visitors per year, a figure which does not include
the tourists visiting coastal areas of the Gulf of Mexico, Central
America, the Mexican Caribbean and the northern coast of South America.
In addition, CTO statistics for daily cruise ship visitors for the
period of 1991 and 1992 indicated close to 8 million visitors per
year. In response to the increasing flux of tourists, hotels and recreational
facilities are being built in the region. Because of the lack of the
necessary municipal sewerage systems, hotels are placed in the position
of operating their own treatment plants. According to current reports,
only 25% of the treatment plants operated by hotels and resort complexes
are in good operating condition.
There are considerable efforts underway in the Caribbean region to
increase the proportion of population served by communal sewerage
systems, in spite of the high costs involved. The prohibitively high
costs of building and maintaining traditional sewage treatment plants
are frequently given as a reason for not treating the sewage before
its disposal. There are however several biological methods of treatment
available for sewage not contaminated with wastes of industrial origin,
which would be suitable to the tropical and sub-tropical character
of the Caribbean region. Unfortunately, in most instances, sewage
does not only contain human excreta, but also various environmentally
unfriendly compounds used in households, such as detergents. The problem
is further exacerbated by the common practice of discharging untreated
or inadequately treated industrial waste water into the domestic waste
water stream. As a result, most sewers contain a variety of toxic
and nonbiodegradable substances, which make their treatment less effective
and more costly. It is estimated that less than 2% of the urban sewage
is treated before its disposal, and that the proportion of treated
sewage from rural communities is probably even lower. The outfalls
of the sewerage systems are usually very short, contributing to the
pollution of nearshore waters.
An additional source of sewage is from the increasing number of ships
and recreational vessels within the region. Larger ships have holding
tanks for sewage, which, according to Annex IV of MARPOL, they are
not permitted to discharge within four miles of the nearest land,
unless they have approved treatment plants on board. Coastal cargo
vessels and recreational boats do not have holding tanks, and are
likely to discharge their waste waters in marinas and nearshore coastal
areas due to the lack of port reception facilities for sewage wastes
in most of the countries in the region.
The alleviation of the sewage problem and the creation of a long
term viable economy will necessitate a political commitment to develope
and enforce legislation relevant to the management of residential
and tourism development in the coastal zone, as well as adherence
to planning policies taking into account the potential environmental
impacts of development. Improving existing sewage disposal facilities,
or building new ones where necessary is important, as is ensuring
that individual houses and resorts have sewage disposal systems, such
as septic tanks. Larger resorts should use existing municipal sewage
systems, where available, or install and manage their own packaging
plants.
The Wider Caribbean region is one of the largest oil producing areas
of the world with a production of approximately 170 x 106
tons per year. The main oil producing countries are Colombia, Mexico,
Trinidad and Tobago, USA, and Venezuela. Most of the oil produced
within the Wider Caribbean region is shipped within the region resulting
in an intricate network of distribution routes. The sites most vulnerable
for accidents are areas where tankers move through restricted channels
and in the vicinity of ports. In addition to tankers, a number of
tank barges also operate in the region in support of extensive oil
refineries and petrochemical industries. In spite of regulations established
in Annex I of MARPOL 73/78, tankers and barges do not always use port
facilities for the disposal of bilge and tank washing and wastes,
and a significant amount of oil is discharged into the coastal areas
of the Wider Caribbean region this way. This deliberate release far
exceeds the amount of oil entering the sea from accidental oil spills.
Offshore oil and gas exploitation can become sources of pollution,
either in the form of accidental oil spills or from the release of
"produced water" from the oil-bearing strata with the oil
and the gas at the time of production. The "produced water is
discharged into the marine environment together with waste drilling
chemicals and mud, and may contain substances that exert high oxygen
demand, together with toxic poly-aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), benzene,
ethylbenzene, xylene and heavy metals, such as lead, copper, nickel
and mercury. Accidental oil spills from offshore operations are often
caused by pipeline breakage, well blowouts, platform fires overflows
and equipment malfunctioning. In addition to the accidental oil spills,
there is also a significant amount of natural seepage of petroleum
hydrocarbons from submarine oil deposits, which contributes to marine
pollution. Unlike the previously described sources of oil pollution,
natural oil seepages are very difficult to estimate.
Much of the information on oil pollution levels in coastal and marine
waters of the Wider Caribbean Region comes from the UNEP-IOC/IOCARIBE
CARIPOL (Caribbean Oil Pollution Database) Program initiated in 1979.
The
data gathered by CARIPOL indicated that the concentration of dissolved/dispersed
petroleum hydrocarbons (DDPHs) are generally low in offshore waters,
while relatively high levels are found in enclosed coastal areas.
Oil refineries and petrochemical plants were also seen as the major
sources of coastal oil pollution within the region. NOAA Status and
Trends Programme has been gathering information about the accumulation
of petroleum hydrocarbons, particularly toxic compounds, such as PAHs,
in sediments and marine organisms along the U.S Gulf Coast. The CARIPOL
Programme has also obtained similar information along the Mexican
Gulf coast and the coastal areas of the Caribbean region.
The impact of oil pollution on the ecology of coastal and marine
ecosystems and the species that inhabit them is particularly destructive
following massive oil spills caused by maritime accidents. However,
information required to completely understand the ecological and health
risks caused by long-term chronic oil discharges into the coastal
marine environment of the Wider Caribbean Region is very limited.
Corals do not die from oil remaining on the surface of the water.
However, gas exchange between the water and the atmosphere is decreased,
with the possible result of oxygen depletion in enclosed bays where
surface wave action is minimal. Coral death results from smothering
when submerged oil directly adheres to coral surfaces, and oil slicks
affect sea birds and other marine animals. In addition, tar accumulation
on beaches reduces tourism potential of coastal areas.
Rivers bring a considerable amount of sediments into the coastal
and marine ecosystems of many Wider Caribbean region nations. Natural
geochemical processes control most of the suspended and dissolved
materials carried by these rivers. However, human activities can increase
the amount of sediments in the rivers. These activities include erosion
of the river basin watershed caused by deforestation, urbanization,
agricultural activities, and by a variety of pollutants discharged
into the waters. Most of the rivers discharge sediment loads ranging
between 100 and 1000 mg/l into the coastal waters of the Wider Caribbean
region. The yearly sediment load in the region can be estimated at
109 tons per year, which is approximately 12% of the global
sediment input from rivers, estimated at 8 * 109 tons/year.
Most land in Caribbean region, especially on the small islands, is
relatively near the ocean, making the coastal and marine environments
especially vulnerable to sedimentation caused by human activities.
In addition, the coastal areas are under increasing development pressure,
while the shortage of land on small islands forces development activities
onto steeper, erosion prone terrain. In many Caribbean countries,
intensive mining of beach sand, as well as inappropriate coastal engineering,
such as the construction of breakwaters and seawalls, has lead to
increased coastal erosion. All these activities combined can have
serious ecological impacts.
In the Wider Caribbean Region, deforestation of the river basin watersheds
is likely the biggest human activity contributing to sediments entering
the coastal zone. Continued economic growth in the region has brought
about changes in the traditional uses of land. Increased agricultural
development has taken place at the expense of forestlands. There is
a limited amount of information available about the long-term effects
of siltation in coastal waters, most of which has been gathered from
remote sensing sources and coral reef surveys. Long-term data is needed
to establish a time series of patterns and consequences of land use
changes in drainage basins. The increased turbidity of coastal waters
place a continuous stress on critical coastal ecosystems, such as
coral reefs. The negative effect of siltation on coral reefs has been
confirmed by studies conducted on the coasts of Panama, Costa Rica,
Nicaragua, among other locations. Increased sedimentation can cause
a variety of negative impacts on coral reefs. These include screening
out light needed for photosynthesis, scouring of coral by sand and
other transported sediments, poor survival of juvenile coral due to
loss of suitable substrata, and the direct smothering of coral in
cases of extreme sedimentation.
Mining and dredging operations can also be a direct source of siltation.
The mining of bauxite is particularly important for the economies
of Jamaica, Suriname, Guyana, and to a lesser degree the Dominican
Republic and Haiti. In the case of Jamaica, bauxite wastes are not
discharged into rivers or coastal areas but into deposition ponds.
There is little information about the final disposal of wastes from
bauxite operations for the other mentioned countries. Other mining
operations within the Wider Caribbean Region include the mining and
processing of ores for the production of nickel oxide in Cuba and
the Dominican Republic. The mining activities take place in areas
close to the coast. Again, little information exists about the disposal
of mine tailings in rivers of adjacent coastal waters.
Dredging is another contributor to the siltation of coastal waters.
Dredge materials are generally contaminated sediments containing toxic
heavy metals, organic pollutants etc. originating from domestic and
industrial point discharges and non-point sources. Dredging of shallow
coastal waters to keep open shipping lanes, while not producing pollution,
causes serious re-suspension of sediments and resulting decrease of
water clarity. Increased water turbidity decreases the productivity
of coral reefs and seagrass beds, which rely on light for photosynthesis.
In cases of high sediment load, physical smothering of coral reefs,
seagrasses, and associated filter feeders and other benthic organisms
is also possible. A related problem is the transport of pesticides
and herbicides bound to sediments to the marine environment.
The discharge of nutrients into coastal waters is a major cause of
eutrophication, especially in areas of limited water circulation.
Nutrient enrichment is an increasing concern in the Wider Caribbean
Region. The main nutrients are nitrogen and phosphorus compounds,
and they enter coastal waters from point and non-point sources. Eutrophication
may cause algal blooms, changes in the aquatic community structure,
decreased biological diversity, fish kills and oxygen depletion events.
The presence of nutrients in the water column enhances the growth
of plants, and in some cases may cause algae to overgrow the corals
or seagrasses that were previously present. Habitat degradation will
in turn cause decreased fisheries production and loss of recreational
and tourism potential
Fertilizers used in agriculture are one source of nutrients reaching
the coastal zone. Continued economic growth and development has drastically
changed the traditional land use patterns of the Wider Caribbean Region.
Agricultural development has been rapid, and, in addition, coastal
areas have seen increased population growth together with changes
in adjacent land use, increasing the pressures on the marine and coastal
areas. Sewage from coastal settlements is also a major source of nutrients
in coastal waters. In addition, nutrients, especially nitrogen, enter
the marine environment via atmospheric deposition. Traffic is an important
source of these atmospheric nutrients.
To control the sources of nutrient enrichment and to reverse the
adverse effects of eutrophication, it will be necessary to improve
the effectiveness of nutrient reduction in sewage treatment plants
and to control the runoff from non-point sources by improving management
practices in agriculture. In addition, practices that promote long-term
benefits and cause the least damage to interrelated ecosystems should
be encouraged. Tourism, which is of great importance to the economies
of the Wider Caribbean Region, is directly dependent on the quality
of the coastal environment. When eutrophication occurs, the ecological
and aesthetic quality of the environment is altered and, in severe
cases, recreational use is prevented.
Pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, etc.) are extensively
used in conjunction with agriculture within the Wider Caribbean Region.
Pesticides reach the coastal and marine environment via rivers and
by atmospheric transport. Pesticides in the marine environment may
affect living organisms, and, through contamination of seafood, may
become a public health problem. It has been estimated that 90% of
the pesticides that are applied do not reach the targeted species.
Pesticides are highly toxic and tend to accumulate in the coastal
and marine biota, making pesticide contamination a serious concern.
The negative effects of pesticides in the marine and coastal environments
include changes in reef community structure, such as decreases in
live coral cover and increases in algae and sponges and damage to
seagrass beds and other aquatic vegetation from herbicides. Marine
organisms may be affected either directly, as the pesticide moves
through the food chain and accumulate in the biota, or by loss or
alteration of their habitat. This, in turn, will lead to decreased
fisheries production. Pesticides may cause fish kills in areas of
poor water circulation, and groundwater and drinking water supplies
may become contaminated. Areas under particular threat are those with
little water exchange and circulation, where pesticide residues don’t
get flushed out quickly.
Many of the monitoring programs developed to determine the presence
of pesticide residues accumulated in sediments and the marine biota
in the Wider Caribbean Region have concentrated on a limited number
of pesticides of known long-term environmental impact and toxicity.
These pesticides include DDTs, Chlordanes, Dieldrin, Endrin, Aldrin,
HCB’s, Heptachlor and its epoxides, Endosulfan, among others.
NOAA’s Status and Trends Mussel Watch Program (MWP) have conducted
most of the published surveys of pesticides in sediments and marine
organisms of the Wider Caribbean Region. In 1986 and 1987, DDTs were
still the most abundant compounds and their levels were considerably
higher in oyster tissues than in sediments. Until recently, the MWP
have concentrated their work on the U.S Gulf Coast, and limited data
are as of yet available for most Caribbean nations.
Efforts to reduce pesticides will depend on a change in agricultural
practices and in the handling of pesticides. The environmental effects
depend on the chemicals used, quantities applied, the biophysical
layout of the farm, including amount of vegetation cover, the slope,
drainage and the presence of riparian buffer zones along rivers and
streams. Land can be set aside for coastal erosion and introduction
of newer pesticides with much lower application rates. Some pesticides
and many insecticides are sediment-binding, and the amount reaching
the coastal environment could be reduced by controlling soil erosion
in agricultural areas. Water-soluble pesticides are potentially more
damaging because they easily enter the coastal environment. The end
of the rainy season poses a time of particular threat to surface water
contamination because of potential overflow from catchment areas to
nearby rivers and streams. There is not very much data available yet
about the behaviour of these pesticides in the marine environment
when applied in the tropical coastal zones, including degradation
rates, fractionization partition and biological update, and transfer
through the food chain to humans. Data on the presence of second and
third generation pesticides has been obtained from the Caribbean coasts
of Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Panama. It was determined that only residues
of the pesticide chlorophyrifos showed widespread distribution in
the analyzed sediments. Frequent fish kills were also observed after
the application of the pesticides, indicating high toxicity to non-target
organisms. It is clear that a modification in agricultural practices
is necessary in order to reduce the impact of pesticides, as well
as their transfer to, the aquatic environment.
Increasing amounts of solid wastes are generated within the Wider
Caribbean region, coupled with deficient collection systems and inadequate
disposal practices. Additionally, disposal of solid wastes originating
from ships and other offshore sources are impacting the coastal areas
of the region. The increasing amounts of solid wastes in the coastal
zone are detrimental to the economies of many countries, especially
those dependent on the tourist trade. Some objects, such as glass
and hypodermic needles, can pose a health risk to those coming into
contact with them. Scientists have documented an increasing number
of injuries and death among marine mammals, fish, sea turtles, and
birds due to entanglement. Furthermore, animals can mistake plastic
items and pelagic tar as food sources. Some marine animals accidentally
feeding on plastic may feel a sense of fullness, and as a result,
slowly starve to death.
The land based solid waste pollution has its origin in inadequate
disposal practices, such as using rivers and streams and mangrove
swamps as dumpsites. Poorly managed landfills in coastal areas can
also become sources of debris, especially in the rainy season, when
runoff may wash wastes out to sea. At present there is little published
information available about the amount of solid wastes generated in
the Wider Caribbean region, and about how these wastes are handled
prior to final disposal.
Solid wastes dumped at sea come from shipping, commercial fisheries,
and other offshore activities. The disposal of solid wastes by ships
in nearshore coastal areas is regulated by Annex V of the MARPOL 73/78
Convention. The Maritime Environment Committee of the International
Maritime Organization (IMO) in July 1991 designated the Wider Caribbean
region as a "Special Area" under the above regulations.
However, in order to comply with Annex V of MARPOL, most countries
in the region will need to provide port reception facilities for Annex
V wastes generated by shipping activities. At present, many countries
in the region lack such facilities. The lack of adequate port reception
facilities could result in solid wastes being disposed of at sea,
and being transported by wind and currents to shore often in locations
distant from the original source of the material. Ship generated wastes
account for approximately 80% of solid wastes in the coastal areas
Beach cleanups are performed in many countries of the region. Generally
plastics are very common, while glass, metal containers, paper products
and other materials are also commonly seen. The most effective way
to reduce this pollution is to stop it at the source. To this end,
increasing public awareness, strengthening local legislation, promoting
proper garbage collection, transportation, and dispersal system, including
the development of port reception facilities to comply with Annex
V of MARPOL, are some potential solutions for the problem of ship
generated pollution.
Toxic pollutants are organic and inorganic compounds, either synthesized
or chemically transformed natural substances. When accidentally released
into the marine environment, they can have severe adverse effects
on marine ecosystems. Many compounds are very persistent in the aquatic
environment, bio-accumulate in marine organisms, and are highly toxic
to humans via the consumption of seafood. The sources of toxic pollutants
are primarily industrial point sources, such as the petroleum industry
(oil refineries and petrochemical plants), chemical industries (organic
and inorganic), wood/pulp plants, pesticide production and formulation,
metal and electroplating industries etc. Toxic substances also enter
the marine environment from non-point sources via rivers and streams
and through the atmosphere.
Toxic substances are generally released as a result of manufacturing
operations, effluent discharges, and accidental spills. The wastes
generated may contain heavy metals, carcinogenic hydrocarbons, dioxins,
different types of pesticides, noxious organic and inorganic substances,
etc. With increasing industrial development within the Wider Caribbean
region, the discharge of toxic pollutants is a potential problem for
every country in the region. Major industrial activity centers within
the region are concentrated in a few areas, including the Texas and
Louisiana region of the U.S. Gulf Coast, the industrial area of Lake
Maracaibo in Venezuela, the El Mamonal Industrial complex in Cartagena
Bay, Columbia, Kingston Harbour in Jamaica, and Havana Bay in Cuba.
The extent of industrial toxic substances released into the environment
depends on the location of the sites and the measures that companies
are taking to reduce their waste flow. The potential effects of toxic
substances in the marine and coastal environments include the destruction
of fish and other wildlife leading to a loss of biodiversity, decrease
in productivity of mangrove, seagrass and coral reef ecosystems, negative
economic impacts relating to tourism and recreation, and human health
risks through contaminated food.
Limiting the amount of toxic substances entering the coastal and
marine ecosystems usually involves a legislative approach. The legislation
will have to be not only implemented, but actively enforced to be
effective. In future planning efforts special attention should be
paid for the location of industrial sites in order to limit their
effect on important coastal and marine ecosystems. Finally, each industry
producing hazardous wastes needs to have an effluent and recipient
monitoring program in place for compliance control.
Many of the land-based sources of pollution degrading the coastal
and marine environment are reaching the marine environment through
waterborne, airborne or direct discharges. Any pollution from a confined
and discrete conveyance, such as a pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel, well,
fissure, etc. is considered point source pollution. Examples of point
source pollution include sewage effluents and various industrial discharges.
Domestic sewage is a significant contributor to marine pollution
in the WCR. Typical pollutants in sewage effluents are suspended solids,
oxygen demanding substances, nitrogen, phosphorous, oil, grease, and
pathogens. Industrial wastewater has a wider range of pollutants,
which are dependent on the type of industry producing the waste. Oil
refinery wastewater produces a high amount of oxygen demanding substances,
dissolved salts, phenol and sulfur compounds etc. Wastewater from
the food processing industry, distilleries and soft drink industries
is also high in oxygen demanding substances, as is chemical industry
wastewater, which also frequently contains toxic substances.
Non-point source pollution is more difficult to recognize than point
source pollution. Non-point source pollution emanates from unconfined
or unchannelled sources, including agricultural run off, drainage
or seepage, and atmospheric deposition. These pollutants reach the
marine environment by surface water, through ground water flows, or
by air. Examples of non-point sources of pollution include sediments,
nutrients, pesticides, pathogens and solid waste. They are caused
by activities such as tillage, fertilising, manure spreading, pesticide
use, irrigation and clear cutting.
The effectiveness of existing wastewater collection and treatment
facilities in the region, whether domestic or industrial, is usually
constrained by limited capacity, poor maintenance practices, process
malfunction, and lack of experienced or properly trained staff. Existing
agricultural and forestry practices are often characterised by absence
of consistent requirements for best management practices relating
to non-point sources of pollution. Environmental management presents
a demand for improved management practices and for controls to be
put in place for different point as well as non-point sources of pollution.
Attention also needs to be given to land and water use in the surrounding
environment.
Most of the countries in the Wider Caribbean Region have adopted
legal instruments to control various aspects of domestic and industrial
wastewater disposal to coastal and marine waters. The degree to which
these legal instruments are applied in the practical management and
control of environmental pollution by governmental agencies varies
from country to country, but is usually very weak. In many cases the
legislation does not include systems for integrated permitting (which
integrates all aspects of the environment, such as air, water, noise,
waste, and risk), compliance control and enforcement. Integrated permitting
aims to co-ordinate the time schedules and information required for
sectoral permitting procedures, and aims to have a mechanism in charge
of the co-ordination of different sectoral permits.
Environmental planning and management in this regard is a sectoral
issue. However, the environmental sector is not the only sector with
demands on the use and quality of coastal and marine waters. Other
interests and demands need to be identified as well. The use and protection
of water therefore necessitates an integrated approach to planning
and management. The quality of surface water, as well as coastal and
marine waters, is inter-linked with the use of the land and the sea.
Because of this, planning and management activities will have to be
performed in a multi-sectoral way. Coastal and marine planning and
management should be seen as processes, which embrace environmental,
socio-economic and demographic considerations, including issues such
as land-sea interaction, interdisciplinary co-operation, participation
of public and private sector organisations, balance between protection
and development, and public participation. An efficient planning and
management process can not take place without multi-sectoral participation
and a co-ordinating body powerful enough to co-ordinate different
sector agencies. The co-ordinating body will decide how the integration
and co-ordination between different interests should be dealt with.
It should then be the responsibility of the sector agencies to implement
the decisions of the co-ordinating body.
Briefly, the aims of these planning activities are:
- To collect general information regarding existing conditions and
overlapping development trends;
- To provide a basis for discussion and decisions regarding the
priority to be given to different interests;
- To stimulate further in-depth planning or special studies; and
- To provide a basis for decisions in connection with permit applications
and the implementation of various measures.
Regionally, the Land Based Sources (LBS) Protocol of the
Cartagena Convention an instrument for dealing with environmental
pollution reaching the marine environment from land-based sources.
The Protocol is supported by a special subprogram of the Caribbean
Environment Programme called the Assessment
and Management of Environmental Pollution Sub-programme (AMEP).
The AMEP (Assessment and Management of Environmental Pollution) Subprogramme
of the Caribbean Environment Programme deals with the assessment and
management of environmental pollution. Description of AMEP, programme
updates, and related technical reports can be found on our AMEP page.
These reports were used as sources for the previous text.
CEP Technical Report
No. 32, Guidelines for Sediment Control Practices in the Insular
Caribbean
CEP Technical Report
No. 33, Regional Overview of Land-Based Sources of Pollution in
the Wider Caribbean Region
More information about
CEP Technical Reports
These sites are in no particular order. If you know of a site you
think should be included in this list, please e-mail your suggestions
to uneprcuja@cwjamaica.com.
MARINE POLLUTION IN THE CARIBBEAN
REMPEITC-Carib
http://www.rempeitc.org
This site of the Regional Marine Pollution Emergency, Information
and Training Center for the Wider Caribbean Region contains information
about oil pollution, training, regional focal points, and contingency
plans.
Tar and Oil Pollution Data for Stations in the Gulf of Mexico
and Caribbean Sea (1979-89)
http://neonet.nlr.nl/providers/neonet.nlr.nl/local/ceos/datasets/FWA00245.html
This page contains data collected by NOAA's Atlantic Oceanographic
and Meteorological Laboratory from the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico
as part of the Caribbean Oil Pollution Database (CARIPOL) Project.
ECLAC/CDCC Waste Management Links
http://www.wow.net/community/eclac/CARLINKS/wastlink.htm
This site contains national contingency plans, information about
waste management projects, technical documents and the oil spill protocol.
GENERAL MARINE POLLUTION
Smithsonian Institution Ocean Planet Exhibition Page on Marine
Pollution
http://seawifs.gsfc.nasa.gov/OCEAN_PLANET/HTML/peril_pollution2.html
This very educational page has information about cross country sources
of pollution, raw sewage, alien species, and America's watersheds.
Ocean News Issue #4 Marine Pollution
http://oceanlink.island.net/marpoll.html
Ocean News is published by Bamfield Marine Station Public Education
Programme. The pollution issue has information about sources and solutions
of pollution as well as red tides, and is very educational.
Consortium for International Earth Science Information Network
(CIESIN) page on Environmental Treaties and Resource Indicators
http://sedac.ciesin.org/pidb/texts/marine.pollution.dumping.of.wastes.1972.html
The site contains a summary of Convention on the Prevention of Marine
Pollution by Dumping of and Other Matter.
SITES WITH LISTS OF POLLUTION RELATED WEB SITES
Oceanwatch Links
http://www.envirolink.org/envlib/orgs/oceanwatch/links.htm
A compilation of interesting sites with ocean pollution related information.
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