Coral Reef Management

Coral

A coral is composed of tiny, fragile animals called coral polyps.   When we say "coral" we are actually referring to the animals and the skeletons they leave behind after they die.  Although there are hundreds of different species of corals, they are generally classified as either "hard coral" or "soft coral".

Hard corals grow in colonies and are the architects of coral reefs.   They include such species as brain coral and elkhorn coral.  Their skeletons are made out of calcium carbonate (also known as limestone) which harden and eventually becomes rock.  Hard corals are hermatypes or reef-building corals and need tiny algae called zooxanthellae (pronounced zo-zan-THEL-ee) to survive.  Generally, when we talk about "coral" we are referring to hard corals.

Soft corals such as sea fingers and sea whips, are soft and bendable and often resemble plants or trees.  These corals do not have stony skeletons, but instead grow wood-like cores for support and fleshy rinds for protection.  They are referred to as hermatypes or non-reef building corals and they do not always have zooxanthellae.  Soft corals are found in both tropical seas and in cool, dark regions.

Coral Reef

Coral reefs are massive structures made of limestone that is deposited by living things.  Although thousands of species inhabit coral reefs, only a fraction produce the limestone that builds the reef.  The most important reef building organisms are corals.

Coral reefs support over twenty five percent of all known marine species.   As one of the most complex ecosystems on the planet, coral reefs are home to over 4,000 different species of fish, 700 species of coral and thousands of other plants and animals.

A good way to imagine a coral reef is to think of it as a bustling city or community, with buildings made of coral, and thousands of inhabitants coming and going, carrying out their business.  In this sense, a coral reef is like a metropolis under the sea.

Coral Polyp

A coral polyp is a spineless coral animal.  Coral polyps can be the size of a pinhead while others are larger, sometimes a foot in diameter.  One coral branch or mound is covered by thousands of these animals.  They are invertebrates (spineless animals) and are cousins of anemones and jellyfish.  When thousands of these animals are grouped together, they are referred to as coral colonies.  Each coral "tree" or "mound" is one colony of coral polyps.  A polyp has a sac-like body and an opening or mouth encircled by stinging tentacles called cnidae.   The polyp uses calcium carbonate from seawater to build itself a hard, cup-shaped skeleton.  This limestone skeleton protects the soft, delicate body of the polyp.   Coral polyps are usually nocturnal, meaning that they stay inside their skeletons during the day.  At night polyps extend their tentacles out to feed..

CHARACTERISTICS OF CORALS AND CORAL POLYPS

Where do Corals live?                                                                                                                      [top of page]

Coral reefs are found in over 100 countries.  Most reefs are located between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, in places such as the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Caribbean, the Read Sea and the Arabian Gulf.  Corals are also found farther from the equator in places where warm currents flow out of the tropics, such as Florida and southern Japan.  Worldwide, coral reefs cover an estimated 284,300 square kilometers (110,000 square miles).

Coral reefs grow best in waters with a temperature of between 21 and 29 degrees Celsius (70 and 85 degrees Fahrenheit).  It is possible for soft corals to grow in hotter and colder places, but growth rates under these conditions are very slow.  Corals prefer clear and shallow waters, where lots of sunlight filters through to their symbiotic algae.   It is possible to find corals at depths of up to 91 meters (300 feet), but reef-building corals grow poorly below 18-27 meters (60 to 90 feet).  Corals also grow poorly near river openings or coastal areas with excessive run-off, because corals need salt water to survive.

How long does it take for coral to grow?

Corals grown at different rates, depending on water temperature, salinity, turbulence, and the availability of food.  The massive corals are the slowest growing species, adding between 5 and 25 millimeters (.2 inches to an inch) per year to their length.   Branching and Staghorn corals can grown much faster, adding as much as 20 centimeters (8 inches) to their branches each year.

How do corals get their shape?

The variety of shapes and sizes of coral colonies largely depends on their location and species.  Some species form hard, pointed shapes, while others form soft, rounded shapes.  The shape of coral colonies also depends on the location of the coral.   For example, where there are strong waves corals tend to grown into robust mounds or flattened shapes.  In more sheltered areas the same species may grow in more intricate shapes such as delicate branching patterns.

How do Coral Polyps eat?

Coral polyps eat in two different ways, depending on their species.  Many coral polyps are nourished in a unique way by a tiny algae called zooxanthellae (pronounced zo-zan-THEL-ee).  The algae live within coral polyps, using sunlight to make sugar for energy, just like plants.  Zooxanthellae process the polyp's wastes to retain important nutrients and in turn provide the polyp with oxygen.  Meanwhile, the coral polyps provide the algae with carbon dioxide and a sage, protected home.   Zooxanthellae living with the tissue of hard corals can supply them with up to 98 percent of their nutritional needs.

Another way that corals eat is by catching tiny floating animals known as zooplankton.   At night the polyps come out of their skeletons to feed, making the reef look like a "wall of mouths".  The polyps stretch out their long, stinging tentacles to capture the zooplankton that are floating by.  The captures plankton are then put into the polyp's mouths and digested in their stomachs.

How do corals get their colour?

Most coral polyps have clear bodies and their skeletons are white, like human bones.  Most corals get their colour from the zooxanthellae inside them.   Several million zooxanthellae live in just one square inch of coral and produce pigments.  These pigments are visible through the clear body of the polyp and give the coral its beautiful colour.

How do Corals reproduce?

Coral reproductive methods vary, depending on the species.  Some species such as brain and star corals are hermaphrodites, meaning they produce both sperm and eggs at the same time.  Other corals, such as Elkhorn and boulder corals, are gonochoric, meaning that they produce single-sex colonies.  In these species, all of the polyps in one colony produce only sperm and all of the polyps in another colony produce only eggs.

Coral larvae are formed in two different ways.  The larvae are either fertilized within the body of a polyp or outside the polyp's body in the water.   Fertilization of an egg within the body of a coral polyp is achieved from sperm that is released through the mouth of another polyp.  The sperm and egg merge and form a planula larvae, which matures inside the body of its mother.  When the larva is ready, it is "spit" into the water through the mouth of its mother.   Other species of coral reproduce by ejecting large quantities of eggs and sperm fertilize in the water.  This process is called coral spawning.  In some areas, mass coral spawning events occur on one night a year and scientists can predict exactly when this will happen.  Trillions of eggs and sperm are simultaneously released into the water in one of the most astounding acts of synchronicity in the natural world.

Once in the sea, larva are naturally attracted to light.  They swim to the surface of the ocean, where they remain for days or even weeks.  If predators do not eat the larva during this time, they fall back to the ocean floor and attach themselves to a hard surface.  An attached planula metamorphasizes into a coral polyp and begins to grow and divide itself in half, making exact genetic copies of itself.   As more and more polyps are added, a coral colony develops.  Eventually the coral colony becomes mature, begins reproducing and the cycle of life continues!

What do Corals need to survive?

• Sunlight:   Corals need to grow in shallow water where sunlight can reach them.  Since corals depend on the zooxanthellae (algae) that grow inside of them and this algae needs sunlight to survive, corals too need sunlight to survive.  Therefore, corals rarely develop deeper than 50 meters (165 feet).
• Clear Water:    Corals needs clear water to survive and don't thrive well when the water is opaque.  Sediment and plankton can cloud the water which decreases the amount of sunlight that reaches the zooxanthellae.
• Temperature:   Reef building corals require warm water conditions to survive.  Different corals living in different regions can withstand different temperature fluctuations.  However, corals generally live in water temperatures ranging from 20 to 32 degrees Celsius (68 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit).
• Clean Water:   Corals are sensitive to pollution and sediment.  Sediment can settle on coral, blocking out sunlight and smothering coral polyps.  Pollution from sewage and fertilizers increases nutrient levels in the water, harming corals.  When there are too many nutrients in the water, the ecological balance of the coral community is altered.
• Saltwater:    Corals need saltwater to survive and require a certain balance in the ratio of salt to water.  This is why corals don't live in areas where rivers drain fresh water into the ocean.

IMPORTANCE OF CORAL REEFS

How old are coral reefs?                                                                                                                 [top of page]

The geological record indicates that the ancestors of modern coral reef ecosystems were formed at least 350 million years ago.  The coral reefs existing today began growing as early as 50 million years ago.  Most established coral reefs are between 5,000 and 10,000 years old.  Although size sometimes indicates the age of a coral reef, this is not always true.  Different species of coral grow at different rates, depending on water temperature, oxygen level, amount of turbulence, and availability of food.

How is a coral reef constructed?

Coral reefs are complex, multi-story structures with holes and crevices shared by various creatures.  If a coral reef can be thought of as a metropolis of the sea, then a coral colony can be thought of as an apartment building with many different rooms and hallways that house different marine species.  Not all coral species build reefs.   The actual architects of coral reefs are hard or stony corals, which are referred to as hermatypic or reef-building corals.  As the polyps of stony corals grow, the produce limestone for their skeletons.  When they die, their skeletons are left behind and are used as foundations for new polyps, which build new skeletons over the old ones.  An actual coral mound or tree is composed of layer upon layer of skeletons covered by a thin layer of living polyps.

Other types of animals and plants also contribute to the structure of the reef.   Many types of algae, seaweed, sponge, sediment and even mollusks like giant clams and oysters, add to the architecture of a coral reef.  When these organisms die, they also serve as foundation for new corals.

What are the different types of reefs?

Scientists generally divide coral reefs into four classes:  fringing reefs, barrier reefs, atolls and patch reefs:

• Fringing reefs grow near the coastline around islands and continents.  They separate from the shore by narrow, shallow lagoons.  Fringing reefs are the most common type of reef that we see.
• Barrier reefs also parallel the coastline but are separated by deeper, wider lagoons.  At their shallowest point they can reach the water's surface forming a "barrier" to navigation. The Great Barrier Reef in Australia is the most famous example and is the largest barrier reef in the world.
• Atolls are rings of corals that create protected lagoons and are usually located in the middle of the sea.  Atolls usually form when islands surrounded by fringing reefs sink into the sea or the sea level rises around them (these islands are often the tops of underwater volcanoes).  The fringing reefs continue to grow and eventually form circles with lagoons inside.
• Patch reefs are small, isolated reefs that grow up from the open bottom of the island platform or continental shelf.  They usually occur between fringing reefs and barrier reefs.  They vary greatly in size, and they rarely reach the surface of the water.

Coral reefs make a healthy world

Coral reefs are one of the most spectacular and fragile of underwater environments, covering less than one percent of the ocean floor but supporting an estimated twenty-five percent of all marine life.  Even though they are located in the tropics, coral reefs can benefit people and the natural world far beyond their boundaries.

Millions of humans depend on coral reefs

"By one estimate, coral reefs provide economic goods and ecosystem services worth about $375 billion each year to millions of people." (Robert Constanza et. al. 1997)

Many countries with coral reefs generate significant portions of their income through tourism.  Studies show that on average, countries with coral reef industries derive more than half of their gross national product from them.  A good example can be found in Bonaire, a small Caribbean island.  Bonaire earns about $23 million USD annually from coral reef activities--yet managing its marine park costs less than $1 million dollars annually.  (F. Talbot and C. Wilkinson, 2001)

The variety of marine life and protected beaches supported by coral reefs provide an inviting setting for sightseers, sunbathers, snorkelers, and scuba divers.  In fact, there are more than 8.5 million certified scuba divers in the United States who spend money on dive vacations each year.  In 1997, the State of Florida earned $1.6 billion USD from coral reef and beach related tourism.  For residents of coral reef areas that depend on income from tourism, reef destruction creates a significant loss of employment in the tourism, marine recreation and sport fishing industries.

Coral reefs are also a significant source of protein for millions of people.  For people who live in coral reef areas, coral reefs are part of their lives.  Reefs are directly linked with traditional, spiritual and cultural values of many people who live in reef areas.

Coral reef save lives

Just like species in the rain forest, reef animals and plants contain medicinal compounds, many of which are just being discovered.  Several important drugs have already been developed from chemicals found in coral reef organisms.  The most famous of these is AZT, a treatment for people with HIV infections, which is based on chemicals extracted from a Caribbean reef sponge.

Unique compounds from coral reefs have also yielded treatments for cardiovascular diseases, ulcers, leukemia and skin cancer.  In addition, coral's unique skeletal structure has been used to make our most advanced forms of bone grafting materials.

Amazingly, more than half of all new cancer drug research focuses on marine organisms.   The beautiful and fragile creatures of our coral reefs have the potential to make even greater contributions to our lives by providing new cures for life-threatening diseases.

Coral reefs protect the beaches

Another benefit that people received from coral reefs is the guard they keep on our coastlines.  Reefs serve as a buffer, protecting inshore areas from the pounding of ocean waves.  Without coral reefs, many beaches and buildings would become vulnerable to wave action and storm damage.  In on instance, when coral and sand was mined away in the Maldives, it cost $10 million USD per kilometer to build a wall to protect the coastline.  (Coral Reefs, Mangroves and Seagrasses:  A sourcebook for Managers, F. Talbot and C. Wilkinson, 2001)

Animals that live nowhere else

Coral reefs are a high-density location of biodiversity.  This means that the variety of species living on a coral reef is greater than almost anywhere in the world.   When we protect coral reefs, we protect an abundant array of life.

Coral reefs provide shelter for nearly one quarter of all know marine species.   Over the last 350 million years, reefs have evolved into one of the largest and most complex ecosystems on the planet.  The reefs are home to over 4,000 species of fish, 700 species of coral, and thousands of other forms of plant and animal life.   Scientists estimate that, in total, more than 1 million species of plants and animals are associated with the coral reef ecosystem.

 

CORAL BLEACHING

What is coral bleaching?                                                                                                                 [top of page]

Coral normally gets most of its oxygen and nutrients from tiny algae that live within it, called zooxanthellae (zoo-zan-THEL-ee) and without this algae, corals would die.   Zooxanthellae also contains pigments, which give coral colonies their beautiful colours.  Sometimes, when coral is under extreme stress, it expels the zooxanthellae, causing the coral to turn white.  Coral bleaching is a term used to describe this process.

Why does coral bleach?

Coral bleaching is caused by environmental stresses.  Sometimes, small, localized bleaching events result from chemical spills, sedimentation, and decreases in ocean salinity from heavy rains or flooding.  However, large global instances of bleaching, called mass bleaching, appear to be caused primarily by an increase in water temperature or ultraviolet radiation.  Even small temperature increases, as little as a 1-degree Celsius above normal temperature range, over a period of a few days, can force exposed coral to expel it zooxanthellae.  If conditions quickly return to normal, the coral may recover and regenerate over time.  Unfortunately, in the face of other numerous or chronic threats, corals are often vulnerable and therefore die from the bleaching process.

How serious is the coral bleaching process?

Incidences of localized bleaching, from factors such as chemical spills and sedimentation, have been recorded since 1870.  Since 1983, however, a new phenomenon has appeared, called mass coral bleaching.  In such instances, elevated water temperature and increased amounts of UV light cause coral reefs in unrelated areas around the world to bleach during the warm season.  Many mass bleaching are correlated with El Niño/La Niña events, which create unusual warm water currents.  Many scientists are also concerned that global warming is leading to elevated water temperatures and consequently causing mass bleaching events.

What can I do about coral bleaching?

The best thing you can do to prevent mass coral bleaching is use "precautionary methods" when thinking about how you use energy.  For instance, try using less energy (because most energy comes from burning fossil fuels) and support alternative energy sources, such as wind and solar power.  You can also walk or ride a bike, instead of driving, buy energy-efficient appliances, recycle paper products, and plant trees.  Ask your policy makers to support sustainable energy sources and efficient energy use.  In addition, you can support conservation organizations that are working to prevent climate change and/or support coral reef conservation groups too.  If you scuba dive or snorkel, keep a lookout for bleached colonies.  You can play an important role in alerting scientists as soon as coral bleaching begins, so that they can study the phenomenon and try to determine its causes.  If you think you've found a section of bleached coral, report it to your dive operator and ask them to notify the nearest marine research station.

CORAL REEFS : TEN QUESTIONS - TEN ANSWERS

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This paper was presented at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa (September 2002) by Richard Kenchington, former ICRI Coordinator.

The document is available here in PDF format.

 

THREATS TO CORAL REEFS

We have lost over a quarter of the world's coral reefs.  If the present rate of destruction continues, 60% of the world's coral reefs will be destroyed in the next 30 years.  The loss of healthy coral reefs would mean the elimination of a primary source of food, income and employment for millions of people around the world, as well as the extinction of many fascinating and beautiful marine species.

Coral reefs have always faced damage from natural causes such as cyclones, pest outbreaks, and disease.  Coral is also broken by fish and other forms of marine life.   Under normal conditions, reefs are resilient to such damage and recover over time.   Additional human pressures, however, are weakening the reefs, reducing their ability to regenerate and recover from natural damage.

Sewage, Chemical Pollution and Marine Debris

Scientists have identified pollution as one of the leading causes of coral reef degradation.  This threat comes from a variety of sources.   For example, oil, gas, and pesticide contamination poisons coral and marine life.  Pollution also reaches reefs when communities and industries dump human and animal waste and/or fertilizer into ocean and river systems.  These pollutants increase the level of nitrogen around coral reefs, causing an overgrowth of algae, which smothers reefs by cutting off their sunlight.

Floating trash can also cover reefs, blocking off sunlight that polyps need to survive.   Trash dumped into the water also kills reef animals.  Turtles often mistake plastic bags for jellyfish and eat them.  Plastic blocks the turtle's digestive tract, causing it to starve to death.  Lost or discarded fishing nets - called "ghost nets" - can also snag on reefs and strangle thousands of fish, sea turtles and marine animals.

Sedimentation

Construction along coasts; farming along coastal rivers; inshore construction, mining, and logging can all lead to soil erosion. As a result, particles rush downstream into the ocean and cover coral reefs.  Dirt, silt, and sand make the water cloudy.  This 'smothers' or shades coral by depriving it of the light it needs to survive.

Coastal Development

Coastal populations have risen, increasing the pressures on coastal resources.   This had led to a multitude of problems for coral reefs.  In many areas, developers have constructed piers and other structures directly on top of coral reefs.   At one time, big cities such as Hong Kong, Singapore, Manila, and Honolulu had thriving coral reefs.  Long ago these reefs were destroyed by humans.  Now, reefs growing near other coastal communities are experiencing the same coral degradation.

Destructive Fishing Practices

Although cyanide fishing supplies live reef fish for the tropical aquarium market, most fish caught using cyanide are sold to restaurants, primarily in Asia, where live fish are prized for their freshness.  To catch fish with cyanide, fishers dive down to the reef and squirt cyanide in coral crevices and on the fast-moving fish, to stun them and make them easy to catch.  Although some large tropical fish can metabolize cyanide, smaller fish and other marine animals, such as coral polyps, are poisoned by the chemical produced during this practice.

Overfishing is another leading cause of coral degradation.  Often, too many fish are taken from one reef to sustain a population in that area.  Poor fishing practices, such as using explosives (blast fishing), blow apart the surrounding coral reducing the reef to rubble.  In other instances, fishers bang on the reef with sticks (muro-ami) which destroys coral formations that normally function as fish habitat.

Coral Mining

Many reefs are being destroyed by coral mining.  Coral is collected for coral curios and jewelry and often sold to tourists and exporters in markets of developing countries.  Sand and limestone from coral reefs are made into cement for new buildings.  Coral pieces are also sometimes removed for use as bricks and road-fill.

Careless Recreation

Corals suffer when tourist resorts empty their sewage directly into the water surrounding coral reefs.  Wastes kept in poorly maintained septic tanks can leak into surrounding ground water, eventually seeping out to the reefs.  Careless boating, diving, snorkeling and fishing can also damage coral reefs.  Dropping anchors onto reefs crushes and breaks coral.  Whenever people grab, kick, walk on, stir up sediment or collect coral, they contribute to coral reef destruction.

Global Warming and Coral Bleaching

Global warming is caused by the accumulation of carbon dioxide and other heat trapping gases in the atmosphere.  This is primarily due to fossil fuel burning and deforestation.  Increased water temperatures, which may be linked to global warming, are dangerous to coral since corals are very sensitive to changes in temperature.   Higher temperatures in coral waters stress corals and can lead to mass coral bleaching.  Coral beaching occurs when coral polyps, stressed by heat or ultraviolet radiation, expel the algae that live within them.  These algae, called zooxanthellae (zo-zan-THEL-ee), normally provide the coral with up to 80% of their energy, making zooxanthellae essential for coral survival.  The algae are also normally responsible for the colour of coral, so when it is expelled, the coral appears white or "bleached".  Bleached coral can sometimes recover if conditions return to normal.  However, in the face of the other human-induces pressures, corals have become vulnerable and in many cases, bleached coral colonies die.

Carbon Dioxide

In the past few decades, the amount of carbon dioxide in the air has increased by one-third.  This is harmful to corals because increased amounts of carbon dioxide are dissolving in the water, which appears to be dissolving the skeletons of corals.  As a result, corals in waters with large amounts of carbon dioxide grow weaker skeletons, making them more vulnerable to damage from waves, careless tourists, and destructive fishers.

Ozone Depletion

The destruction of the ozone layer, which accompanies global warming, is caused by the presence of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other chemicals in the atmosphere.  This presence causes the depletion of protective ozone in the atmosphere and increases the intensity and nature of ultraviolet radiation that reaches the earth's surface.   although corals have a natural sunscreen to protect themselves from the tropical sun, most scientists believe increased levels of ultraviolet radiation damages coral in shallow waters.

 

CYANIDE FISHING AND CORAL REEFS

What is cyanide fishing?                                                                                                                  [top of page]

Cyanide fishing is a popular method of capturing live reef fish for the seafood and aquarium markets.  It is widely practiced in Southeast Asia and South Pacific and is starting to spread to other parts of the world.  Cyanide fishers squirt cyanide into coral holes and crevices, where reef fish seek refuge.  The cyanide stuns the fish, making it easy for cyanide fishers to capture their dazed prey.  The cyanide poisons reefs and is extremely harmful to coral polyps and other reef organisms.   Furthermore, less than half the fish caught with cyanide survive long enough to be sold to aquariums or restaurants.

Are cyanide fishing practices increasing?

• When the practice began cyanide fishing was primarily used to gather tropical fish for aquariums.  Now, in addition to the aquarium trade, demand for live fish for restaurants in many Asian cities is increasing the drive for this destructive practice.
• An estimated 65 tons of cyanide are sprayed each year on Philippine coral reefs alone.
• Destructive cyanide fishing practices are spreading from currently over-harvested and devastated reefs in the Philippines to remote and pristine coral reefs in eastern Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Palau, Tuvalu, the Federated States of Micronesia, and other nations of the Western Pacific.

Why do people use cyanide?

In the South Pacific and the Southeast Asia market demand for live reef fish has created incentives for local fishers to turn to modern fishing techniques, such as cyanide fishing, to support themselves and their families.  The profits from live fish, such as grouper, wrasse, rock cod and snapper are many times higher than that of dead fish.   Exporters demand much more money for live fish than dead fish at luxury fish markets in Asia.  While most nations have decided that the profits from cyanide fishing are not worth its destructive cost, many governments do not have the resources to monitor and enforce laws against cyanide use.

What can you do to stop cyanide fishing?

• Don't purchase live reef fish at a restaurant or only purchase it if you are certain it was caught in a sustainable way.
• If you own an aquarium, make sure you have reef fish that were caught without cyanide.
• Encourage your aquarium shop retailer to purchase fish that are caught by fishers who use nets instead of cyanide.

 

CORAL REEFS AND COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT

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The world's tropical coastal zone contains coral reefs, one of the most productive and biologically rich ecosystems on the planet.  Almost half a billion people live within 100 km (60 miles) of coral reefs and this population continues to grow along with expanding coastal development.  The growth of cities, the building of roads and airports, dredging of harbours and shipping channels, and other construction projects are threatening coral reefs primarily from the deposition of sediment and poorly treated sewage.  Damage tot he coral reef community as a result of unplanned coastal development leads to long-term socio-economic loss.  By using Intercoastal Zone Management (ICZM) practices, a country can create sustainable coastal development projects that also serve to protect their coral reefs.

The Problem

Unplanned coastal development projects not only damage coral reefs, but also local economies that are supported by tourism.  Eighty-five percent of all tourism worldwide is in coastal areas, fueling a $385 billion dollar industry.  The sustainability of reef ecosystems, a significant driver of this industry and the communities that it supports, are compromised by unplanned, high-impact development.

Ecological Impacts of Unplanned Coastal Development:

• Kills coral directly through the construction projects, such as piers, dikes, channels, and airstrips.
• Removal of sections of reef has indirect impacts, such as sand erosion, land retreat, and sedimentation.
• Other impacts of development, such as chronic sedimentation, sewage effluent, and industrial discharge, impact corals' immune systems, growth rates, and reproduction abilities, and may cause death

Socio-Economic Impacts of Unplanned Coastal Development

• Unless ICZM is implemented, tourism will decline, leading to loss in revenue.  In countries, such as Barbados, coral reefs which were described in 1919 as "good thriving reef" with "acres of bottom crowded coral", no longer exist.   The degradation of the Barbados reef is a result of the rapid development of the coastal zone since the 1950s and the corresponding decrease in water quality.
• Coral mining of material for development projects is unsustainable.  For example, Indonesia produces US$121,000 per km (per .6 miles) of reef while causing net losses of US$93,600 in fisheries value, US$12,000-260,000 in coastal protection and US$2,900-481,900 in tourism value (plus unknown costs due to loss of food security and biodiversity) for a maximum total loss of US$835,500 per km of reef.

Solution

ICZM is an approach to develop and implement environmentally, culturally and economically sustainable uses of the coastal zone.  This approach requires a coherent set of resource management policies and practices across the public and private sector that coordinates the management of sustainable development.  The key to ICZM is that all uses and activities are coordinated according to an agreed upon set of policies, and that the coordinated plan is effectively implemented.  This process may require a coordinating mechanism, such as an inter-ministerial council or commission with representatives from all the public and private sectors, along with mechanisms to ensure proper implementation, such as the clarification of authorities, an accountable lead agency, and/or economic incentives (e.g., withholding of infrastructure funding until the plan is completed and/or implemented).

Integration of knowledge and programs is essential for success.  Many governments traditionally treat each activity separately.  There may be one law and set of regulations for pollution from factories, one for fisheries, and one for coastal building permits, all administered by different agencies.  The sector-by-sector approach focuses solely upon one issue or constituency and could result in a loss of valuable resources.  For example, if a country decides to establish a marine reserve, but has not used an ICZM approach to select the location and coordinate other coastal zone activities, the reserves protection may be undetermined by future uncoordinated development.  ICZM requires sound infrastructure and planning.  Existing agencies will still carry out specific management programs while the ICZM authority will concentrate on policy, strategy, planning, design, supervision of research and coordination.

Creating an ICZM Strategy

• Determine whether traditional principles or resource management measures exist and whether their appropriate implementation could enhance coastal resource management;
• Engage in participatory action research with local communities to extract anecdotal and traditional knowledge, to involve local stakeholders in policy planning and implementation, and to create local support for coastal management policies;.
• Inventory coastal environments, resources, and programs to support the continuous supply of data on the state of the coastal environment;
• Determine the short-term and long-term goals that call for coastal development consistent with the preservation of the environment and create a strategy for coastal zone management;
• Create and enforce a strong legal and institutional framework, including economic incentives to reinforce desired behaviours and outcomes;
• Develop a strong coastal management constituency and partnerships at the local, regional and national levels;
• Establish Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), including no-take reserves, to protect, preserve and sustainably manage species and ecosystems of special value (this includes threatened species and habitats);
• Perform Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) of all development projects in the terrestrial and aquatic sections of the coastal zone;
• Assess and monitor pollutants in the water column and make a plan for pollution control.

Other recommendations:

• Ratify and implement international and regional policies such as:
  • The Montreal Declaration on the Protection of Marine Environment from Land-based Activities
  • The Convention on Wetlands, otherwise known as the Ramsar Convention;
  • Cartagena Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment;
  • Programme of Action from the Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States; and
  • The Protocol for Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW).

           

TOURISM IMPACTS ON CORAL REEFS

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Tourism Impacts on Coral Reefs : Increasing Awareness in the Tourism Sector by Tom van't Hof (2001) looks at the impact of tourism on the coral reefs of the Caribbean.

 

INTERNATIONAL CORAL REEF INITIATIVE (ICRI)

The International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) is one of the leading authorities in the fight for coral reef presevation.  This organisation operates through regional bodies around the globe and is well recognised by governments and NGO's alike for experise in this regard.  For more information ...

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REFERENCES

For futher information on coral reefs, threats and preservation visit the ICRIN website.